Electrical and Electronic Materials

EEM101

Assignment 2

Name: Bhim Raj Rai

Std.no: 02230056
Dept: B.E Electrical Engineering
Module: Electrical and Electronic Engineering Materials (EEM101)
Year: 1st
Semester: 2nd

1
 ROYAL UNIVERSITY OF BHUTAN
COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
PHUENTSHOLING: BHUTAN
PLAGIARISM DECLARATION FORM

Student Name: Bhim Raj Rai

Module No and Title of the module: Electrical and Electronic Materials (EEM101)
Assignment no and Title of the Assignment: Assignment 2

Section H2 of the Royal University of Bhutan’s Wheel of Academic Law provides the
following definition of academic dishonesty:
“Academic dishonesty may be defined as any attempt by a student to gain an unfair
advantage in any assessment. It may be demonstrated by one of the following:
Collusion: the representation of a piece of unauthorized group work as the work of a single
candidate.
Commissioning: submitting an assignment done by another person as the student’s own
work. Duplication: the inclusion in coursework of material identical or substantially similar
to material which has already been submitted for any other assessment within the University.
False declaration: making a false declaration in order to receive special consideration by an
Examination Board or to obtain extensions to deadlines or exemption from work.
Falsification of data: presentation of data in laboratory reports, projects, etc., based on work
purported to have been carried out by the student, which have been invented, altered or copied
by the student.
Plagiarism: the unacknowledged use of another’s works as if it were one’s own.
Examples are:
• verbatim copying of another’s work without acknowledgement
• paraphrasing of another’s work by simply changing a few words or altering the
order of presentation, without acknowledgement
• ideas or intellectual data in any form presented as one’s own without
acknowledging the source(s)
• making significant use of unattributed digital images such as graphs, tables,
photographs, etc. taken from test books, articles, films, plays, handouts, internet,
or any other source, whether published or unpublished
• submission of a piece of work which has previously been assessed for a different
award or module or at a different institution as if it were new work
• use of any material without prior permission of copyright from appropriate
authority or owner of the materials used”
Student Declaration
I confirm that I have read and understood the above definitions of academic dishonesty. I
declare that I have not committed any academic dishonesty when completing the attached
piece of work.

Date: 24/04/2024
2
Student’s Signature
 Table of Content

Sl. No Content Page no.

1 Question 1 (General) 4-10

2 Question 2 (Junction Diodes) 11-17

3 Question 3 (Superconductivity) 17-18

4 Question 4 (Numerical) 19-20

5 References 21

3
QUESTION 1 (GENERAL)
a. Discuss Energy Band Theory of Solid? On the basis of Band Theory of Solids, classify
conductors, semi-conductors and insulator. Draw necessary diagrams.
Ans: Energy Band Theory of Solid was initially put forwarded by Felix Bloch in 1928.
As per this theory, energies of the electrons are not in same level. Their energies change to
higher or lower value than that of the original energy level of the electron. This collection of
different energy level is called energy band.
Important Bands in solid:
1. Conduction Band:
✓ Energy band formed by grouping of energy levels of free electrons.
✓ It contains conduction or free electrons but electrons may or may not exist here.
✓ This band is responsible for electrical conductivity.

2. Valence Band:
✓ Energy band formed by grouping of energy levels of valence electrons.
✓ It contains valence electrons and electrons present here have lower energy than
the electrons in conduction band.
✓ Valence band electrons do not participate in electrical conductivity.

3. Forbidden Energy Gap

✓ It is a gap between conduction and valence band.
✓ There are no electrons in the forbidden gap due to absent of energy state in this
region.
✓ Forbidden gap classifies the materials as insulators, conductors and semi-
conductors.

Conduction Band
Energy

Forbidden Gap

e- e- e- e- e-
Valence Gap

4
 Classification of conductors, insulators and semi-conductors based on energy band theory:
1. Conductors
✓ Valence band and conduction band overlap in forbidden gap.
✓ There is no forbidden energy gap.
✓ Energy gap is always less than 1 eV
✓ Electrons from valence gap can easily move to conduction band.
Energy

Conduction Band
e- e-
Forbidden Gap = 0 eV
e- e- e- e- e- Valence band

2. Semi-conductors
✓ In semi-conductors, forbidden gap is narrow.
✓ Energy gap is approximately not more than 3 eV.
e- is completely empty and valence band is completely filled at absolute
✓ Conduction band
zero temperature there it acts as insulator at absolute zero temperature.
Energy

Conduction band

Forbidden Energy Gap ≈ 3 eV

e- e- e- e- e-
Valence Gap
3. Insulators
✓ Valence band and conduction band are far apart and energy gap is very wide.
✓ Energy gap is greater than 3 eV.
✓ Conduction band is completely empty and valence band is completely filled.
✓ Electron cannot
e- jump from valence band to conduction band.

5
 Conduction Band
Energy

Forbidden energy Gap > 3 eV

e- e- e- e- e-
Valence Gap

b. Define semi-conducting materials based on:

e-
i. electrical resistance and
ii. Energy band. Give examples.
Ans: Electrical resistance: Semi-conductor materials are those materials having electrical
resistance values between conductors and insulators.

Energy band: Semi-conductor materials are those materials having narrow energy gap and
electrons can jump from valence band to conduction band in high temperature.
Examples: Silicon, Germanium, Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

c. Mention any five properties or behaviour of semiconducting materials.

1. Resistivity value of semi-conductor is intermediate compared to conductors and
insulators.
2. Electrical conductivity increases as the temperature increases.
3. Electrical resistance decreases as the temperature increases.
4. Have narrow energy gap and electrons can jump from valence band to conduction band
in high temperature.
5. Acts as insulators in absolute zero temperature.

6
d. How does the conductivity change with rise in temperature in case of semiconductor?
Ans: Conductivity of the semi-conductor is directly proportional to temperature therefore as
the temperature rises conductivity of the semi-conductor also increases and vice-versa.

e. What is doping in semiconductor? Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic

semiconductors. Give examples.
Doping refers to process of addition of impurities to intrinsic semi-conductor to alter
electrical properties.

Intrinsic Semi-conductor Extrinsic Semi-conductor

✓ It is a pure semi-conductor ✓ It is impure semi-conductor formed by

process of doping.

✓ It is poor conductor having lower ✓ It is good conductor having higher

conductivity compare to extrinsic semi- conductivity compare to intrinsic semi-
conductor. conductor.

✓ Number of holes in valence band is equal ✓ Number of holes in valence band is not
to number of free electrons in conduction equal to number of free electrons in
band. conduction band.

✓ Examples: Silicon, Germanium, Gallium ✓ Examples: Silicon (Si) doped with

Arsenide (GaAs) Phosphorus (P), Germanium (Ge) doped
with Indium (In)

f. Define mobility “µ” of a charge carrier in terms of electron and hole pairs.
When the electric field is applied to the semi-conductor, charge carriers of semi-conductor
material start to move. Mobility of charge carriers refers to ease with which these charge
carriers can move through the material when the electric field is applied. OR
It is defined as drift velocity of charge carriers per unit electric field.
𝑉𝑑
µ= 𝐸
Vd = drift velocity

E = electric field

7
Electron mobility (µe): Refers how fast electron can move through semi-conductor materials
when electric field is applied on it.

Hole mobility (µp): Refers how fast holes can move through semi-conductor materials when
electric field is applied on it.

g. Explain the concept of hole in a semiconductor.

When the electric field is subjected to semi-conductor material, free electrons from valence
band jump to conduction band leaving vacant space in valence band. This vacancy created in
the valence band is called hole.
✓ It is always positively charged and located in valence band.
✓ It has equal and opposite charge as electron

h. What is meant by donor energy level and acceptor energy level?

Donor Energy Level:
✓ It is energy level formed in forbidden gap of semi-conductor material when the
pentavalent impurity atom is doped to intrinsic semi-conductor materials.
✓ It is just below or close to the conduction band.
✓ It always leads to excess concentration of electrons and forms n-type semi-
conductor.

Acceptor Energy Level:

✓ It is energy level formed in forbidden gap of semi-conductor material when the trivalent
impurity atom is doped to intrinsic semi-conductor materials.
✓ It is just above or close to the valence band.
✓ It always leads to excess concentration of holes and forms p-type semi-conductor.

8
i. Derive an expression for the Electrical conductivity (σ) of a semiconductor.

9
10
QUESTION 2 (Junction Diodes)
a. What is a junction diode? With the help of a diagram, discuss the formation of p-n
junction. What is a depletion region in a p-n junction?
Junction diode is a semi-conductor device that allows current to pass only in one direction and
is formed by combination of p-type and n-type impurities in the semi-conductor materials.

p-n junction

Formation of P-N Junction:

✓ When the semi-conductor material is doped with either p-type and n-type impurities,
there is excess electrons (more negative charge) in one side and deficiency of electrons
(more positive charge) in another side of semi-conductor material. There is formation
of boundary between these two charges which acts as junction. This is called P-N
Junction.
Depletion Region in P-N Junction:
✓ When the region of negative and positive charges is brought in contact in semi-
conductor, diffusion process occurs whereby electrons from negatively charged region
near junction diffuse and enters the holes inside positively charged region of semi-
conductor and the layer or region is formed at junction where there is no holes and
electrons. This is called depletion layer.

b. What is extrinsic semiconductor? With the help of Energy band diagrams, explain the
formation of N- type and P- type extrinsic semiconductors.
Extrinsic semi-conductors are those semi-conductors formed by doping of impurities in the
intrinsic semi-conductors.
1. N-type extrinsic semi-conductors:
✓ It is an extrinsic semi-conductors formed by doping of pentavalent impurity atom to
intrinsic semi-conductors.
✓ It has excess of negatively charged electron (no. of electrons > no. of holes).
✓ Donor energy level is just below the conduction band.
✓ Electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are minority charge carriers, therefore
current is mainly contributed by electrons.
11
 Conduction Band
Energy

Donor energy level

Forbidden energy Gap

e- e- e- e- e-
Valence Band

2. P-type extrinsic semi-conductors:

✓ It is an extrinsic semi-conductors formed by doping of trivalent impurity atom to
intrinsic semi-conductors.
e-
✓ It has excess of positively charged electron (no. of holes > no. of electrons).
✓ Acceptor energy level is just above the valence band.
✓ Holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority charge carriers, therefore
current is mainly contributed by holes.

Conduction Band
Energy

acceptor energy level Forbidden energy Gap

e- e- e- e- e-
Valence Band

-
c. Discuss briefly onetypes of junction diodes with VI characteristics of PN diodes.
1. PN Junction Diode
✓ It is diode or a basic semi-conductor device used to pass the current in one direction
and formed by doping of either n-type or p-type impurities in the semi-conductor
materials. In this diode a junction is formed between the region of p-type and n-type.

12
 PN junction diode is further divided into forward bias and reverse bias diode:
1. Forward Bias Diode: In forward bias diode, p-type is connected to positive terminal
of cell and n-type is connected to negative terminal of cell.

2. Reverse Bias Diode: In reverse bias diode, p-type is connected to negative terminal
of cell and n-type is connected to positive terminal of cell.

VI characteristics of PN Diode:

Forward bias

Reverse Bias

2. Zener Diode:
✓ A Zener diode is a particular diode of the type which is constructed to be able to perform
with maximum reliability in the reverse breakdown area. Under high currents, this
phenomenon will result in breakdown with a nearly constant voltage across the
terminals of the diode.

Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode

✓ The Zener diode has positive properties when it is conducting Forward, just like the
conventional diode does. It is quite obvious from the above graph that the diagonal axis
to the first quadrant is matching other characteristic of the other P-N junction diodes.
Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode
✓ In the phase of reversal, the current that goes through the Zener diode is in a small
amount. This ongoing current is due to the generated in Zener diode by electrons who
are thermally defined. When we induce a higher reverse voltage at any point, the
reverse current rises diminishingly. The breakdown voltage point (Zener Voltage) is
V2 = Vz.

13
VI characteristics of Zener diode:

3. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

✓ A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when an
electric current flows through it. LED works as such: unlike the majority of the devices,
the electrons combine with holes producing light. Through a diode, current is able to
flow only in the positive direction rightward and it acts as a barrier to the current in the
integrally opposite direction.

When the light emitting diode is reverse biased, there will be no emission of light. In-fact,
light emitting diodes will get damaged when reverse biased. LEDs made of elemental
semiconductors like germanium and silicon emit energy in the form of infra-red radiations.

14
d. Illustrate with neat labeled diagrams the actions of forward and reverse biasing of
junction diodes. Plot characteristics curve for both forward and reverse biasing.
Hence define knee voltage.
1. Forward Bias Diode:
✓ In forward bias diode, p-type is connected to positive terminal of cell and n-type is
connected to negative terminal of cell.
✓ There is opposite direction of electric field of battery and diode hence potential
difference decreases.
✓ Electrons can easily jump from n-type to hole in p-type and produce current.

2. Reverse Bias Diode:

✓ In reverse bias diode, p-type is connected to negative terminal of cell and n-type is
connected to positive terminal of cell.
✓ The electric field of battery and diode are directed towards the same direction hence
potential barrier increases.
✓ Electrons cannot easily jump from n-type to hole in p-type thus produce no current.

15
VI Characteristics Curve of forward and reverse diode:

Forward bias

Knee voltage

Reverse Bias

Knee Voltage:
✓ It refers to the point on the voltage-current (VI) characteristic curve of the diode where
the current begins to increase rapidly with a small increase in forward bias voltage. It
is also sometimes referred to as the cut-in voltage.

e. What are the Advantages of Transistors over vacuum tubes? What are their
drawbacks?
Advantages of Transistors over vacuum tubes:
✓ Transistors are much smaller and lighter than the vacuum tubes thus can be more
effective in compact electronic devices.
✓ Transistors have more resistance to shock, vibration and temperature variations leading
to longer lifespan than vacuum tubes.
✓ Transistors can be operated much lower voltages and currents than vacuum tubes.
16
Drawbacks of transistors:
✓ Since transistors are more sensitive to temperature variation, performance of transistors
can be affected when there are changes in temperature.
✓ Transistor cannot withstand overload like vacuum
✓ Transistors produces more noise pollution compared to vacuum tubes.
✓ It is more expensive than vacuum tubes.

QUESTION 3 (SUPERCONDUCTIVITY)

a. Define: i. superconductivity and ii. Super conductors?

i) Superconductivity: It is property of materials that experience zero resistance and conduct
current without any energy loss when they are cooled below a critical temperature.

ii) Super Conductors: Those conductors that have zero electrical resistance when cooled below
critical temperature and exhibits Meissner effect.

b. What is a transition/ critical temperature?

The temperature at which electrical resistivity of the material suddenly drops of zero and the
material changes from normal conductor to a super conductor.

c. Discuss the effect of: i. magnetic field ii. Electric current on

superconductors? Give mathematical relations.
I) Effect of magnetic field on superconductors:
1. Meissner effect: As a superconductor experience cooling under its critical temperature
(Tc) and operates within a magnetic field, the Meissner effect comes into play, whereby
the magnetic field gets ousted from the inner part of the superconductor.

2. Critical Magnetic Field: Below the critical magnetic field, the superconductor expels
all magnetic flux from its interior and exhibits perfect diamagnetism.

3. Zero resistance: superconductors exhibit zero electrical resistance even in the presence of
magnetic field below critical value.

Mathematical relations between magnetic field and superconductors:

H = Critical field at 0k
T = Temperature below Tc
Tc = Transition temperature

17
 ii) Effect of electric current on superconductors:
1. Zero resistance: When electrons in a superconducting material are subjected to a high
voltage, they encounter no resistance, and as no energy is dispersed in the form of heat,
there is no energy lost in the form of heat produced.
2. Persistent Currents: When the current is induced through any superconductors, it can floe
without applied voltage. This is called persistent current.

d. Mention any four important applications of superconductor.

Superconductor are used in:
✓ Power transmission
✓ Nuclear fusion
✓ Manufacturing of electronics
✓ Superconducting quantum devices

e. Distinguish between Type–I(soft) and Type–II (hard) Superconductors. Give

examples. State any five important comparisons between them. Mention their
applications.

Type I (soft superconductor) Type II (hard superconductor)

✓ Expel all the magnetic fields from their ✓ Does not expel all the magnetic fields from
interior below critical magnetic field. their interior below critical magnetic field.
It allows some magnetic field to penetrate.
✓ Has single critical field ✓ Has two critical fields.

✓ do not exhibit vortex formation because ✓ exhibits vortex formation because they
they expel all magnetic flux from their allow some magnetic field to penetrate
interior below the critical magnetic field. from their interior below the critical
magnetic field.

✓ It exhibits complete Meissner effect. ✓ It does not exhibit complete Meissner effect.

✓ They are completely diamagnetic. ✓ They are not completely diamagnetic.

Applications: Used in power transmission, Applications: Used in MRI, Maglev trains

superconducting magnets.
Example: NbTi, Nb3Sn
Example: Hg, Pb, Zn

18
QUESTION 4 (NUMERICALS)

a. Find the maximum wavelength of EM radiation which can create a hole-electron pair
in germanium. Given that forbidden energy gap in germanium is 0.72 eV.
We know,
ℎ𝑐
𝐸=
𝜆
ℎ𝑐
𝜆=
𝐸
1242
𝜆= = 1.72 × 10−6 m
0.72

b. Pure silicon at 300K has equal electron (ne) and hole (nh) concentration of 1.5 x 1016
/m3. Doping by indium increases nh to 4.5 x 1022 / m3. Calculate ne in the doped silicon.
Given;
𝑛e1 = 1.5 x 1016 /𝑚3

𝑛h1 = 1.5x 1016 /𝑚3

𝑛h2 = 4.5 x 1022 /𝑚3

𝑛𝑒2 =?
𝑛𝑒1𝑛ℎ1 = 𝑛ℎ2𝑛𝑒2
𝑛𝑒1 𝑛ℎ1
𝑛𝑒2 =
𝑛ℎ2

(1.5×1016 )(1.5×1016)
= = 5 x 109 /𝑚3
4.5×1022

c. A semiconductor is known to have an electron concentration of 8 x 10 13 /cm3 and a

hole concentration of 5 x 1012 /cm3.
(a) Is the semiconductor n-type or p-type?
ne = 8 x 1013 /cm3
nh = 5 x 1012 /cm3
Since ne > nh, it is a n-type semiconductor

19
 (b) What is the resistivity of the sample, if the electron mobility is 23,000 cm 2/V/sec
and the hole mobility is 100 cm2/V/sec. given, e =1.6 x 10-19 C.
Gn; ne = 8 x 1013 /cm3 = 8 x 1019/m3
nh = 5 x 1012 /cm3 = 5 x 1018 /m3
μe = 23,000 cm2/V/sec = 2.3 m2/V/sec
μh = 100 cm2/V/sec = 0.01 m2/V/sec

1
ρ=
𝜎
σ = e (ne μe + nh μh)
= 1.6 x 10-19{(8 x 1019 x 2.3) + (5 x 1018 x 0.01)}
=1.968 m

1
⸫ρ= 1.968
= 0.508Ω/m

d. A superconducting wire of diameter 1mm has a Critical temperature of 3.7 K at zero

magnetic field and a critical field of 0.0306 Tesla at 0K. Find the critical magnetic
field at 2K.
Sol: Given:
Tc = 3.7 K
T=2K
H0 = 0.0306 Tesla
Hc =??
Hc = H0{1- (T/Tc)2}
= 0.0306{1- (2/3.7)2}
=0.02166 Tesla

20
 References

Admin. (2023, June 14). Zener Diode - Definition, working, Circuit Symbol, V-I
characteristics, Applications, and FAQs. BYJUS. https://byjus.com/physics/zener-
diode/

GeeksforGeeks. (2024, February 27). Comparison of Type I and Type II superconductors.

GeeksforGeeks. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/comparison-of-type-i-and-type-ii-
superconductors/

Hub. (2021, May 5). Types of diodes and their applications. Retrieved from

https://www.electronicshub.org/types-of-diodes/

Ling, S. J., Sanny, J., & Moebs, W. (2016, September 29). 9.5 Band Theory of Solids -
University Physics Volume 3 | OpenStax.
https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-3/pages/9-5-band-theory-of-solids

Meissner Effect: Levitation, superconductivity & application. (n.d.). StudySmarter UK.

https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/physics/solid-state-physics/meissner-
effect

Poole, C. P., Farach, H. A., & Creswick, R. J. (2007). Superconductivity (2nd ed.). Amsterdam:

Elsevier.

21