Increasing Object-Tracking Behaviour in a Child with Autism Using

Shaping and Positive Reinforcement: A Single-Case Analysis

Abstract
Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) frequently demonstrate
impairments in foundational attending behaviours such as eye contact and object
tracking, which are critical for social communication and instructional control. This
single-case study evaluated the effects of a shaping procedure combined with
positive reinforcement to increase object-focused visual attending in a 7-year-old
child with ASD. An A–B design was employed. During the baseline condition, the
child received social reinforcement (e.g., verbal praise) contingent on brief gaze
toward a specified object. The intervention phase introduced differential
reinforcement of successive approximations (DRSA) using edible reinforcers to
increase the duration of eye contact in a stepwise manner (1 to 3 seconds). The
dependent variable was the duration (in seconds) of gaze directed toward the
object; the independent variable was the implementation of shaping with
reinforcement. Data were collected across 35 sessions. Visual analysis revealed
initial increases in gaze duration, though the behaviour was not maintained
consistently. Results suggest that shaping procedures may facilitate acquisition of
object tracking, though inconsistent implementation and lack of generalisation
strategies may limit long-term outcomes. The study highlights the importance of
clearly operationalised procedures, prompt fading, and programming for
maintenance and generalisation in applied behaviour analytic interventions. Future
research should consider employing multiple baseline designs, procedural fidelity
checks, and extended follow-up probes.
Introduction
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is behaviourally defined by impairments in social
communication and the presence of restricted and repetitive behaviour patterns.
One core deficit includes reduced eye contact and attending to social and
nonsocial stimuli. Attending behaviours such as eye contact and object tracking
are essential for establishing instructional control, joint attention, and engagement
in teaching sessions. Behavioural interventions often target these attending
behaviours using reinforcement, modelling, prompting, and shaping techniques
(Carbone et al., 2013; Levin et al., 2009). While extensive literature supports eye
gaze training directed at social stimuli (e.g., therapist’s face), fewer studies focus
on object tracking as a discrete skill. This study examines the use of differential
reinforcement and shaping to increase the duration of object-focused gaze in a
child with ASD, a prerequisite skill for discrimination training and early instructional
control.

Method
Participant: The participant was a 7-year, 6-month-old male with a diagnosis of
ASD according to DSM-5 criteria. The diagnosis was supported by the Vineland
Social Maturity Scale (Doll, 1953) and the Developmental, Dimensional, and
Diagnostic Interview (3Di). He had previously received approximately 3,000
minutes of intervention across multiple domains. Design: A single-subject A–B
design was used to measure the effect of the independent variable (shaping
procedure with reinforcement) on the dependent variable (duration of gaze directed
at a specified object). Data were visually analysed to assess changes in trend,
level, and variability. Setting and Materials: Sessions occurred in a controlled
therapy environment. Preferred toys (e.g., cars, musical items) served as
discriminative stimuli. Preferred edible reinforcers were selected via
multiple-stimulus without replacement (MSWO) assessments. Procedure: Baseline
sessions involved verbal praise contingent on brief gaze responses. During
intervention, shaping was implemented across three steps: (1) gaze for 1 second,
(2) 2 seconds, (3) 3 seconds, with reinforcement delivered after each correct
approximation. Edible reinforcement was delivered on an FR1 schedule. No
physical prompts were used; visual and gestural prompts were faded
systematically.

Results
The participant demonstrated modest gains in object-tracking behaviour during the
intervention phase. While gaze duration increased occasionally to the 3-second
criterion, performance was inconsistent across sessions. Baseline data showed
durations under 1 second. During intervention, data showed variable responding
with some upward trends, suggesting acquisition with limited generalisation or
maintenance. No follow-up or generalisation probes were conducted.

Discussion
Results suggest that shaping paired with positive reinforcement may facilitate
acquisition of object-tracking behaviours. Inconsistencies highlight the need for
structured prompt hierarchies, stimulus control, and treatment integrity protocols.
Limitations include the absence of interobserver agreement, treatment fidelity data,
and lack of maintenance/generalisation assessments. Future research should use
multiple baseline designs, incorporate generalisation probes, and define
procedures in line with the technological dimension of ABA for replication.

References
Adolphs, R. (2003). Cognitive neuroscience of human social behaviour. Nature
Reviews Neuroscience, 4(3), 165–178. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1056 American
Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author. Carbone, V. J., O’Brien, L.,
Sweeney-Kerwin, E. J., & Albert, K. M. (2013). Teaching eye contact to children
with autism: A conceptual analysis and single case study. Education and
Treatment of Children, 36(2), 139–159. Cook, J. L., Rapp, J. T., Mann, K. R.,
McHugh, C., Burji, C., & Nuta, R. (2017). A practitioner model for increasing eye
contact in children with autism. Behaviour Modification, 41(3), 382–404. Doll, E. A.
(1953). The measurement of social competence: A manual for the Vineland Social
Maturity Scale. Educational Test Bureau. Foxx, R. M. (1977). Attention training:
The use of overcorrection avoidance to increase the eye contact of autistic and
retarded children. Journal of Applied Behaviour Analysis, 10(3), 489–499. Kanner,
L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2, 217–250.
Kanner, L. (1944). Early infantile autism. Journal of Paediatrics, 25, 211–217.
Levin, L., Lee, K., Korneder, J. A., Bauer, T., & Evans, M. L. (2009). Acquisition of
spontaneous eye contact during teaching interactions: the implementation of
shaping techniques without prompts. Presentation at ABAI, Phoenix, AZ. Ninci, J.,
Lang, R., Davenport, K., Lee, A., Garner, J., Moore, M., et al. (2013). An analysis
of the generalisation and maintenance of eye contact taught during play.
Developmental Neurorehabilitation, 16(5), 301–307. Weiss, M. J., & Zane, T.
(2010). Three important things to consider when starting intervention for a child
diagnosed with autism. Behaviour Analysis in Practice, 3(2), 58–60.