Paper is a thin sheet of matted cellulose fibers.
Largely derived from lignocellulose,
paper is created from a pulp dissolved into a slurry that is drained and dried into
sheets. Different types of paper are defined by constituent fiber, paper
pulp, sizing, coating, paper size, paper density and grammage.
The papermaking process developed in East Asia at least as early as 105 CE by
the Han court eunuch Cai Lun, although archaeological evidence exists of 2nd
century BCE paper-like material in China. Before the industrialization of paper
production, the most common paper was rag paper, made from discarded natural
fiber textiles collected by ragpickers. The 1843 invention of wood pulp, coupled with
the Second Industrial Revolution, made pulpwood paper the dominant variety to this
day.[1]
Etymology
Further information: Papyrus
The word paper is etymologically derived from Latin papyrus, which comes from
the Greek πᾰ́πῡρος (pápūros), the word for the Cyperus papyrus plant.[2][3] Papyrus is
a thick, paper-like material produced from the pith of the Cyperus papyrus plant,
which was used in ancient Egypt and other Mediterranean cultures for writing before
the introduction of paper.[4] Although the word paper is etymologically derived
from papyrus, the two are separate technological developments that use different
materials and production methods. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibre,
while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have been changed by
maceration.[5]
History
Main article: History of paper
Precursors
Further information: Writing material
Paper was preceded by and coexisted with other early writing materials, such
as papyrus, parchment, vellum, barkcloth, birch bark, palm leaves, and bamboo and
wooden slips.
Papyrus, superficially similar to paper, has several downsides that eventually caused
it to be replaced by paper: It was geographically limited to a plant primarily grown in
Egypt; it was both more expensive and laborious to produce compared to paper; and
it was more fragile and sensitive to moisture, making it prone to break apart in damp
conditions.[6]
Invention and development
Hemp wrapping paper, China, c. 100 BCE
The oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern
paper date to the 2nd century BCE in China. The pulp papermaking process is
ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century CE Han court eunuch.[5][7]
In the 13th century, the knowledge and uses of paper spread from the Middle
East to medieval Europe, where the first water-powered paper mills were
built.[8] Because paper was introduced to the West through the city of Baghdad, it
was first called bagdatikos.[9]
In the 19th century, industrialization greatly reduced the cost of manufacturing paper.
In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German inventor Friedrich
Gottlob Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres.[10]
Battle of Talas
Main articles: Battle of Talas § Papermaking, and Samarkand paper § History
Popular history points to the Battle of Talas in 751 CE as when papermaking spread
to the Islamic world, purporting that Tang dynasty papermakers were captured as
prisoners and used to extract 'the secrets' of
papermaking.[11] However, archaeological finds from 313 CE in Samarkand suggest
paper's presence outside China centuries before.[12]
Papermaking
Main article: Papermaking
Pulp
Main article: Pulp (paper)
Pulp is a lignocellulosic mixture of isolated fibers. Traditional low-lignin pulp sources
like rags and paper mulberry can be mechanically broken down; industrial
pulpmaking largely makes use of pulpwood, which can be pulped chemically or
mechanically.
Chemical pulping
Main articles: Kraft process, sulfite process, and soda pulping
To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping
process separates lignin from cellulose fibre. A cooking liquor is used to dissolve the
lignin, which is then washed from the cellulose; this preserves the length of the
cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free
papers (not to be confused with tree-free paper); this is because they do not contain
lignin, which deteriorates over time. The pulp can also be bleached to produce white
paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres. Chemical pulping processes are not used
to make paper made from cotton, which is already 90% cellulose.
The microscopic structure of
paper: Micrograph of tissue paper autofluorescing under ultraviolet illumination. The individual
fibres in this sample are around 10 μm in diameter.
There are three main chemical pulping processes: the sulfite process dates back to
the 1840s and was the dominant method before the second world war. The kraft
process, invented in the 1870s and first used in the 1890s, is now the most
commonly practised strategy; one of its advantages is the chemical reaction with
lignin produces heat, which can be used to run a generator. Most pulping operations
using the kraft process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity
to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers and
reuses all inorganic chemical reagents. Soda pulping is another specialty process
used to pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content.
Mechanical pulping
There are two major mechanical pulps: thermomechanical pulp (TMP) and
groundwood pulp (GW). In the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into
steam-heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres
between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into
grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres.
Mechanical pulping does not remove the lignin, so the yield is very high, > 95%;
however, lignin causes the paper thus produced to turn yellow and become brittle
over time. Mechanical pulps have rather short fibres, thus producing weak paper.
Although large amounts of electrical energy are required to produce mechanical
pulp, it costs less than the chemical kind.
Recycling and de-inked pulp
A process for removing printing inks from recycled paper was invented by German
jurist Justus Claproth in 1774. Today this method is called deinking.[1]
Paper recycling processes can use either chemically or mechanically produced pulp;
by mixing it with water and applying mechanical action the hydrogen bonds in the
paper can be broken and fibres separated again. Most recycled paper contains a
proportion of virgin fibre for the sake of quality; generally speaking, de-inked pulp is
of the same quality or lower than the collected paper it was made from.
There are three main classifications of recycled fibre:
Mill broke or internal mill waste – This incorporates any substandard or grade-change
paper made within the paper mill itself, which then goes back into the manufacturing
system to be re-pulped back into paper. Such out-of-specification paper is not sold and
is therefore often not classified as genuine reclaimed recycled fibre; however most paper
mills have been reusing their own waste fibre for many years, long before recycling
became popular.
Preconsumer waste – This is offcut and processing waste, such as guillotine trims and
envelope blank waste; it is generated outside the paper mill and could potentially go to
landfill, and is a genuine recycled fibre source; it includes de-inked preconsumer waste
(recycled material that has been printed but did not reach its intended end use, such as
waste from printers and unsold publications).[13]
Postconsumer waste – This is fibre from paper that has been used for its intended end
use and includes office waste, magazine papers and newsprint. As the vast majority of
this material has been printed – either digitally or by more conventional means such as
lithography or rotogravure – it will either be recycled as printed paper or go through a de-
inking process first.
Recycled papers can be made from 100% recycled materials or blended with virgin
pulp, although they are (generally) not as strong nor as bright as papers made from
the latter.
Producing paper
