ORA351-FOUNDATION

OF ROBOTICS

Prepared by
Dr. [Link] [Link].D.,
Department of Mechanical Engineering
[Link], UCEV
University college of Engineering Villupuram
 Subject Outline
• Unit I- Fundamentals of Robots
• Unit II - Robot Kinematics
• Unit III - Robot Drive System and End
Effectors
• Unit IV - Sensors in Robotics
• Unit V - Programming and
Applications of Robot

[Link], UCEV
 Robot Defined
• Word robot was coined by a Czech
novelist Karel Capek in a 1920
play titled Rassum’s Universal
Robots (RUR)
• Robota in Czech is a word for
forced worker or servitude. Karel Capek
• Definition of robot:
–Any machine made by one our members: Robot Institute of
America
–A robot is a reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator
designed to move material, parts, tools or specialized devices
through variable programmed motions for the performance of
a variety of tasks: Robot Institute of America, 1979
[Link], UCEV
Laws of Robotics
Asimov proposed three “Laws
of Robotics”
Law 1: A robot may not injure a
human being or through
inaction, allow a human being
to come to harm
Law 2: A robot must obey
orders given to it by human
beings, except where such
orders would conflict with a
higher order law
Law 3: A robot must protect its
own existence as long as such
protection does not conflict
with a higher order law

[Link], UCEV
 History of Robotics: I
• The first industrial
robot: UNIMATE
• 1954: The first programmable
robot is designed by George
Devol, who coins the term
Universal Automation. He later
shortens this to Unimation, which
becomes the name of the first
robot company (1962).

UNIMATE originally automated the

manufacture of TV picture tubes

[Link], UCEV
 History of Robotics: II
1978: The Puma (Programmable
Universal Machine for
Assembly) robot is developed
by Unimation with a General
Motors design support

PUMA 560 Manipulator

[Link], UCEV
 History of Robotics: III
1980s: The robot industry enters a phase of rapid growth. Many
institutions introduce programs and courses in robotics. Robotics
courses are spread across mechanical engineering, electrical
engineering, and computer science departments.

Adept’s SCARA robots Cognex In-Sight Robot Barrett Technology Manipulator

[Link], UCEV
 History of Robotics: IV

1995-present: Emerging
applications in small
robotics mobile
and robots a
drive sec
companies
growth and
of researchond
start-
up
2003: NASA’s Mars Exploration Rovers will launch toward
Mars in search of answers about the history of water on Mars
[Link], UCEV
 Knowledgebase for Robotics
•Typical knowledgebase for the design and operation of robotics
systems
–Dynamic system modeling and analysis
–Feedback control
–Sensors and signal conditioning
–Actuators (muscles) and power electronics
–Hardware/computer interfacing
–Computer programming
Disciplines: mathematics, physics, biology,
mechanical engineering, electrical engineering,
computer engineering, and computer science
[Link], UCEV
 Key Components
Power conversion
unit
Sensors Actuators
Controller
User interface
Manipulat
or linkage
Base
[Link], UCEV
Robot Base: Fixed v/s Mobile
Robotic manipulators used in Mobile bases are typically
manufacturing are examples of platforms with wheels or tracks
fixed robots. They can not move attached. Instead of wheels or
their base away from the work tracks, some robots employ
being done. legs in order to move about.

[Link], UCEV
UNIT I - FUNDAMENTALS OF
ROBOTS

[Link], UCEV
ROBOTS

• A machine that looks and acts like a

human being.
• An efficient but insensitive person
• An automatic apparatus.
• Something guided by automatic
controls.
• E.g. remote control
• A computer whose main function is
to produce motion.

[Link], UCEV
DEFINITION OF ROBOT

RIA defines a robot as a

―reprogrammable, multifunction
manipulator designed to Move
materials, parts, tools or special
devices through variable programmed
motions for the performance of the
variety of tasks.

[Link], UCEV
 Law’s of Robotics
Asimov proposed three “Laws of Robotics”
• Law 1: A robot may not injure a human being or through
inaction, allow a human being to come to harm
• Law 2: A robot must obey orders given to it by human
beings, except where such orders would conflict with a
higher order law
• Law 3: A robot must protect its own existence as long as
such protection does not conflict with a higher order law

[Link], UCEV
 Robot Anatomy

• Robot anatomy is concerned with the physical construction

and characteristics of the body, arm, and wrist, which are the
component of the robot manipulator.
– Base.-fixed are mobile
– The manipulator- arm which several degrees of freedom
(DOF).
[Link], UCEV
• The end-effector or gripper- holding a part or tool
• Drives or actuators – Causing the manipulator arm or end
effector to move in a space.
• Controller – with hardware & software support for giving
commands to the drives
• Sensors - To feed back the information for subsequent action
of the arm or grippers as well as to interact with the
environment in which the robot is working.
• Interface – Connecting the robot subsystem to the external
world. Which consist of a number of component that allowed
be oriented in a verity of position movements between the
various components of the body, arm, and wrist are provided
by a series of joints. These joint movements usually involve
either rotation or sliding motions
[Link], UCEV
 JOINT NOTATION SCHEME
A robot joint is a mechanism that permits relative movement between
parts of a robot arm. The joints of a robot are designed to enable the
robot to move its end-effector along a path from one position to another
as desired.
The basic movements required for a desired motion of most industrial
robots are:
1. Rotational movement: This enables the robot to place its arm in any
direction on a horizontal plane.
2. Radial movement: This enables the robot to move its end-effector
radially to reach distant points
3. Vertical movement: This enables the robot to take its end-effector to
different heights.
4. These degrees of freedom, independently or in combination with
others, define the complete motion of the end-effectors.

[Link], UCEV
TYPES OF JOINTS USED IN ROBOTS
The Robot Joints is the important element in a robot which helps the
links to travel in different kind of movements. There are five major
types of joints such as:
• Linear joint (L)
• Rotational joint (R)
• Twisting joint (T)
• Revolving joint (V)
Linear joint (L), also known as a sliding or prismatic joint, the links are
generally parallel to one another. In some cases, adjoining links are
perpendicular but one link slides at the end of the other link. The joint
motion is defined by sliding or translational movements of the links.
The orientation of the links remains the same after the joint
movement, but the lengths of the links are altered.

[Link], UCEV
• A rotational joint (R) is identified by its motion, rotation
about an axis perpendicular to the adjoining links. Here, the
lengths of adjoining links do not change but the relative
position of the links with respect to one another changes as
the rotation takes place.
• A twisting joint (T) is also a rotational joint, where the
rotation takes place about an axis that is parallel to both
adjoining links.
• A revolving joint (V) is another rotational joint, where the
rotation takes place about an axis that is parallel to one of the
adjoining links. Usually, the links are aligned perpendicular to
one another at this kind of joint. The rotation involves
revolution of one link about another.

[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
 WRIST JOINT

Two or three degrees of freedom:

• Roll
• Pitch
• Yaw

Roll -using a T joint to accomplish rotation about the

robot’s arm axis.
Pitch -which involves up-and-down rotation, typically a R
joint.
Yaw-which involves right-and-left rotation, also
accomplished by means of an R-Joint.
[Link], UCEV
 ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS
Classification Based on Physical Configuration (or) Co-ordinate
Systems:
• Cartesian configuration
• Cylindrical configuration
• Polar configuration
• Joint-arm configuration

[Link], UCEV
• There are five basic configurations commonly available in commercial industrial
robots:

1. Spherical (Polar) Configuration

This configuration consists of a sliding arm (L joint) actuated relative to the body,
that can rotate about a vertical axis (T joint) and a horizontal axis (R joint)

[Link], UCEV
2. Cylindrical Configuration
• This robot configuration consists of a vertical column, relative to which an arm
assembly is moved up and down. The arm can be moved in and out relative
to the axis of the column.
• A T joint to rotate the column about its axis. An L joint is used to move the
arm assembly vertically along the column. An O joint is used to achieve radial
movement of the arm.

[Link], UCEV
3. Cartesian (Rectangular) Configuration
• It is composed of three sliding joints, two of which are orthogonal.

[Link], UCEV
4. Jointed-arm robot (articulated) Configuration
• This robot manipulator has the general configuration of a human arm. The
joined arm consists of a vertical column that swivels about the base using a T
joint.
• At the top of the column is a shoulder joint (R joint), whose about link
connects to an elbow joint (R joint)

[Link], UCEV
5. SCARA (Selective Complains Assembly Robot Arm)
• This configuration is similar to the jointed robot except that the shoulder and
elbow rotational axes are vertical, which means that the arm is very rigid in
the vertical direction, but complaint in the horizontal direction.

[Link], UCEV
• The robots shown below are equipped with a wrist that has twisting, rotary, and
twisting joints in sequence from the arm to the end-effector. Give the designation for
the complete configuration of each robot

• For the robots shown above, the complete designation is as follows:

(a) LRL:TRT (b) RRL:TRT (c) TRL:TRT
[Link], UCEV
(d) LVL:TRT
 WORK VOLUME
• The work volume (work envelope) of the manipulator is defined as the envelope or
space within which the robot can manipulate the end of its wrist.

• Work volume is determined by:

1. the number and types of joints in the manipulator (body-and-arm and wrist),
2. the ranges of the various joints, and
3. the physical sizes of the links

• The shape of the work volume depends largely on the robot’s configuration

[Link], UCEV
Work Volume

• A Cartesian robot has a rectangular work volume

[Link], UCEV
Work Volume
• A cylindrical robot has a cylindrical work volume

[Link], UCEV
Work Volume
• A spherical robot tends to have a sphere as its work volume

[Link], UCEV
 SPECIFICATIONS OF ROBOT

Accuracy:
• Accuracy is refers to a robots ability to positions it wrist end at
a desired target point within the work volume.
• Accuracy of the robot is defined in terms of spatial resolution
because the ability to achieve a given target point depends on
how closely the robot can define the control increments for
each of its joint motion.

[Link], UCEV
Repeatability:
• The ability of a robot to return repeatedly to a given position.
It is the ability of a robotic system or mechanism to repeat the
same motion or achieve the same position.
• Repeatability is a measure of the error or variability when
repeatedly reaching for a single position. Repeatability is
often smaller than accuracy.

[Link], UCEV
Resolution:
• The spatial resolution of a robot is the smallest increment of
movement into which the robot can divide its work volume.
• Its depends on two factors
1. System control resolution
2. Robot mechanical in accuracies
Envelope:
A three-dimensional shape that defines the boundaries that the
robot manipulator can reach; also Known as reach envelope.
Reach:
The maximum horizontal distance from the center of the robot
base to the end of its wrist.

[Link], UCEV
Degree of Freedom (DOF):
• Each joint or axis on the robot introduces a degree of
freedom. Each DOF can be a slider, rotary, or other type of
actuator.
• The number of DOF that a manipulator possesses thus is
the number of independent ways in which a robot arm can
move.
• Industrial robots typically have 5 or 6 degrees of freedom.
3 of the degrees of freedom allow positioning in 3D space
(X, Y, Z), while the other 2 or 3 are used for orientation of
the end effector (yaw, pitch and roll).
• 6 degrees of freedom are enough to allow the robot to
reach all positions and orientations in 3D space.
• 5 DOF robots are commonly used for handling tools such as
arc welders.

[Link], UCEV
Speed:
• The amount of distance per unit time at which the robot
can move usually specified in inches per second or meter
per second.
• Actual speed may vary depending upon the weight
carried by the robot.
Payload:
• The maximum payload is the amount of weight carried
by the robot manipulator at reduced speed while
maintaining rated precision.
• Nominal payload is measured at maximum speed while
maintaining rated precision.
• These ratings are highly dependent on the size and shape
of the payload due to variation in inertia.

[Link], UCEV
Speed of Response and Stability:
• Speed of response and stability are two important
characteristics of dynamic performance related to control
system design.
• The speed of response refers to the capability of the
robot to move next position in a short amount of time.
• The stability is generally defined as a measure of the
oscillations which occurs in the arm during movement
from one position to next.

[Link], UCEV
•Good stability which exhibits little or no oscillation
•Poor stability would be indicated by a large amount of oscillation
•Use proper damping system to avoid oscillations.

[Link], UCEV
PARTS OF ROBOT

Main parts of Robots:

[Link]
2. Arm
3. Drive System
4. End Effectors
[Link]

[Link], UCEV
Controller:
• Every robot is connected to a computer, which keeps the
pieces of the arm working together. This computer is known
as the controller. The controller functions as the "brain" of the
robot.
• The controller also allows the robot to be networked to other
systems, so that it may work together with other machines,
processes, or robots.
• Robots today have controllers that are run by programs - sets
of instructions written in code.
• Almost all robots of today are entirely pre-programmed by
people; they can do only what they are programmed to do at
the time, and nothing else.
• In the future, controllers with artificial intelligence, or AI could
allow robots to think on their own, even program themselves.
This could make robots more self-reliant
[Link], UCEV and independent.
Arm:
• Robot arms come in all shapes and sizes. The arm is the
part of the robot that positions the end effector and
sensors to do their pre-programmed business.
• Many (but not all) resemble human arms, and have
shoulders, elbows, wrists, even fingers.
• This gives the robot a lot of ways to position itself in its
environment.
• Each joint is said to give the robot 1 degree of freedom.
So, a simple robot arm with 3 degrees of freedom could
move in 3 ways: up and down, left and right, forward and
backward.

[Link], UCEV
Drive:
• The drive is the "engine" that drives the links (the sections
between the joints into their desired position.
• Without a drive, a robot would just sit there, which is not
often helpful.
• Most drives are powered by air, water pressure, or electricity.
End-Effector:
• The end-effector is the "hand" connected to the robot's arm.
• It is often different from a human hand - it could be a tool
such as a gripper, a vacuum pump, tweezers, scalpel,
blowtorch - just about anything that helps it do its job.
• Some robots can change end-effectors and be reprogrammed
for a different set of tasks.

[Link], UCEV
Sensor:
• Most robots of today are nearly deaf and blind. Sensors can
provide some limited feedback to the robot so it can do its
job.
• Compared to the senses and abilities of even the simplest
living things, robots have a very long way to go.
• The sensor sends information, in the form of electronic signals
back to the controller.
• Sensors also give the robot controller information about its
surroundings and lets it know the exact position of the arm, or
the state of the world around it.

[Link], UCEV
 TYPES OF ROBOT CONTROLS
1. Point-to-point (PTP) control robot
2. Continuous-path (CP) control robot
3. Controlled-path robot
4. Stop-to-Stop
1. Point to Point Control Robot (PTP):
The PTP robot is capable of moving from one point to another
point. The locations are recorded in the control memory. PTP robots
do not control the path to get from one point to the next point.
Common applications include:
• Component insertion
• Spot welding
• hole drilling
• Machine loading and unloading
• Assembly operations
[Link], UCEV
2. Continuous-Path Control Robot (CP):
• The CP robot is capable of performing movements along the controlled
path. With CP from one control, the robot can stop at any specified point
along the controlled path.
• All the points along the path must be stored explicitly in the robot's
control memory. Applications Straight-line motion is the simplest example
for this type of robot.
• Some continuous-path controlled robots also have the capability to follow
a smooth curve path that has been defined by the programmer.
• In such cases the programmer manually moves the robot arm through the
desired path and the controller unit stores a large number of individual
point locations along the path in memory (teach-in).
Typical applications include:
• spray painting
• finishing
• gluing
• Arc welding operations
[Link], UCEV
3. Controlled-Path Robot:
In controlled-path robots, the control equipment can generate paths of
different geometry such as straight lines, circles, and interpolated
curves with a high degree of accuracy.
Good accuracy can be obtained at any point along the specified path.
Only the start and finish points and the path definition function must
be stored in the robot's control memory.
It is important to mention that all controlled-path robots have a servo
capability to correct their path.

4. Stop-to-Stop:
• It is open loop system
• Position and velocity unknown to controller
• On/off commands stored as valve states
• End travel set by mechanical stops

[Link], UCEV
 TYPES OF ROBOTS
1. Industrial robots
Industrial robots are robots used in an industrial manufacturing
environment. Usually these are articulated arms specifically developed
for such applications as welding, material handling, painting and
others. If we judge purely by application this type could also include
some automated guided vehicles and other robots.
[Link] or household robots
Robots used at home. This type of robots includes many quite different
devices such as robotic vacuum cleaners, robotic pool cleaners,
sweepers, gutter cleaners and other robots that can do different
chores. Also, some surveillance and telepresence robots could be
regarded as household robots if used in that environment.
3. Medical robots
Robots used in medicine and medical institutions. First and foremost -
surgery robots. Also, some automated guided vehicles and maybe
lifting aides. [Link], UCEV
4. Service robots
Robots that dont fall into other types by usage. These could
be different data gathering robots, robots made to show off
technologies, robots used for research, etc.
5. Military robots
Robots used in military. This type of robots includes bomb
disposal robots, different transportation robots,
reconnaissance drones. Often robots initially created for
military purposes can be used in law enforcement, search and
rescue and other related fields.
6. Entertainment robots
These are robots used for entertainment. This is a very broad
category. It starts with toy robots such as robosapien or the
running alarm clock and ends with real heavy weights such as
articulated robot arms used as motion simulators.

[Link], UCEV
7. Space robots
This type would include robots used on the International
Space Station, Canadarm that was used in Shuttles, as well as
Mars rovers and other robots used in space.
8. Hobby and competition robots
Most of the hobbyist robots are mobile and made to operate
by rolling around on wheels propelled by electric motors
controlled by an on board microprocessor.
9. Explorer robots
The majority of these robots are completely self-reliant due to
their sensory systems, however they may also be controlled
by humans giving orders through computer commands. The
other types of explorer robots are underground mine
exploring robots, seeing and walking undersea robots, and
even bomb defusing robots used by police.

[Link], UCEV
10. Laboratory robots
Laboratory robotics is the act of using robots in biology or chemistry
labs. For example, pharmaceutical companies employ robots to move
biological or chemical samples around to synthesize novel chemical
entities or to test pharmaceutical value of existing chemical matter.
11. Sequence robots
A manipulator which progresses successively through the various
stages of an operation according to the predetermined sequence.
12. Playback robots
The playback robots are capable of performing a task by teaching the
position. These positions are stored in the memory, and done
frequently by the robot. Generally, these playback robots are
employed with a complicated control system. It can be divided into
two important types, namely:
• Point to Point control robots
• Continuous Path control robots

[Link], UCEV
 Need for Robot
• Speed
• Repetitive tasks
• Accuracy
• Adaptability
• Efficiency
– Not working time
– Not wasting materials
– Not wasting energy
• Hazardous
– Heat
– Radiation
– Chemical Fumes

[Link], UCEV
 Applications of Robots
1. Car industry
2. Packaging
3. Material handling and machine loading
4. Outer space
5. Intelligent home
6. Exploration
7. Military robots
8. Farms
9. Hospitals
10. Disasters areas
11. Entertainment
12. Highways
13. Railways
14. Aircraft industry
15. Assembly and inspection

[Link], UCEV
 Classifications of industrial robots
According to the Japanese Industry of Robot Association (JIRA)
 Material Handling Devices
A device with multiple degrees of freedom and it is
operated by an operator
 Fixed sequence robot
A device that performs successive stage of a task and
according to a predetermined, unchanging method and hard
to modify.
 Variable sequence robot
A device that performs successive stages of a task and
according to a predetermined, unchanging method and easy
to modify

[Link], UCEV
 Playback robot
In this type of robot, a human operator performs
the tasks manually by leading the robot which records the
motion for later playback. The robot perform the same
motion according to the recorded information
 Numerical control robot
The operator input the robot with a movement
program rather than teaching it the task manually.
 Intelligent robot
This type of robot must understand its
environment and must have the ability to successfully
complete a task despite changes in surrounding
conditions under which its to be performed

[Link], UCEV
Types of Robots: I
Manipulator
 Types of Robots: II
Legged Robot Wheeled Robot

[Link], UCEV
 Types of Robots: III
Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Unmanned Aerial Vehicle

[Link], UCEV
 Robot Uses: I

Jobs that are dangerous

for humans

Decontaminating Robot
Cleaning the main
circulating pump
housing in the nuclear power
plant
[Link], UCEV
 Robot Uses: II

Repetitive jobs that are

boring, stressful, or labor-
intensive for humans

Welding Robot

[Link], UCEV
 Robot Uses: III

Menial tasks that human

don’t want to do

The SCRUBMATE Robot

[Link], UCEV
 Robots in Industry
•Agriculture
•Automobile
•Construction
•Entertainment
•Health care: hospitals, patient-care, surgery , research,
etc.
•Laboratories: science, engineering , etc.
•Law enforcement: surveillance, patrol, etc.
•Manufacturing
•Military: demining, surveillance, attack, etc.
•Mining, excavation, and exploration
•Transportation: air, ground, rail, space, etc.
•Utilities: gas, water, and electric
•Warehouses
[Link], UCEV
 Industrial Applications of Robots

•Material handling
•Material transfer
•Machine and/or
loading unloading
•Spot welding Material Handling Manipulator

•Continuous arc welding

•Spray coating
•Assembly
•Inspection
Assembly Manipulator

Spot Welding Manipulator

[Link], UCEV
 Robots in Space

NASA Space Station NASA Mars Rover

[Link], UCEV
 Robots in Hazardous
Environments

TROV in Antarctica HAZBOT operating in

operating under water atmospheres containing
combustible gases
[Link], UCEV
 Medical Robots

Robotic assistant for

micro surgery

[Link], UCEV
 Robots in Military

PREDATOR
SPLIT STRIKE:
Deployed from a ISTAR
sub’s hull, Manta
could dispatch tiny
mine-seeking AUVs or
engage in more
explosive combat.

GLOBAL HAWK GOLDENEYE

[Link], UCEV
 Robots at Home

Sony SDR-3X Entertainment Robot Sony Aido

[Link], UCEV
 Future of Robots: I
Artificial Intelligence

Cog Kismet
[Link], UCEV
 Future of Robots: II
Autonomy

Robot Work Crews Garbage Collection Cart

[Link], UCEV
Future of Robots: III
Humanoids

HONDA Humanoid Robot

UNIT II - ROBOT KINEMATICS

[Link], UCEV
 ROBOT KINEMATICS
• Robot kinematics is concerned with the position and orientation of the
robot’s end-of-arm, or the end effector attached to it, as a function of
time but without regard for the effects of force or mass.

• Our treatment of manipulator kinematics will be limited to the

mathematical representation of the position and orientation of the
robot’s end-of-arm.

• The kinematics analysis involves two different kinds of problems:

1. Determining the coordinates of the end-effector or end-or-arm for a
given set of joints coordinates (Forward Kinematics), and
2. Determining the joints coordinates for a given location of the end-
effector or end-of-arm (Backward Kinematics).

[Link], UCEV
 Robot Kinematics
• Both the joint space and world space methods of defining position in the
robot’s space are important.
• The joint space method is important because the manipulator positions
its end-of-arm by moving its joints to certain values.
• The world space method is important because applications of the robot
are defined in terms of points in space using Cartesian coordinate
system.

[Link], UCEV
Forward and Backward Transformations

• What is needed is a means of mapping from one space method to the

other.
• Mapping from joint space to world space is called Forward
transformation, and
• Converting from world space to joint space is called Backward
transformation.

[Link], UCEV
Forward and Backward Transformation for a Robot with Two Joints

1- An OO Robot
• Forward Transformation
X = λ2 and Z = λ1

• Backward Transformation
λ1 = Z and λ2 =X

Where
X and Z are the coordinate values
in the world space

λ1 and λ2 are the values in joint space

[Link], UCEV
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Forward and Backward Transformation for a Robot with Two Joints

2 - An RR Robot
• Forward Transformation
The forward transformation is calculated by noting that the lengths and
directions of the two links might be viewed as vectors in space:

r1  L1 cos 1 , L1 sin 1

r2  L2 cos(1   2 ), L2 sin(1   2 )

[Link], UCEV
Forward and Backward Transformation for a Robot with Two Joints
Vector addition or r1 and r2 (and taking account of link L0) yields the
coordinate values of X and Z at the end-of-arm:

X  L1 cos 1  L2 cos(1   2 )
Z  L0  L1 sin 1  L2 sin(1   2 )

[Link], UCEV
Forward and Backward Transformation for a Robot with Two Joints
• Backward Transformation
For the backward transformation, we are given the coordinate positions
X and Z in world space, and we must calculate the joint values that will
provide those coordinate values.

x  ( z  L0 )  L  L
2 2 2 2
cos  2  1 2
2 L1 L2

sin 1 
( z  L0 )( L1  L2 cos  2 )  xL2 sin  2 
{x( L1  L2 cos  2 )  ( z  L0 ) L2 sin  2 }

[Link], UCEV
Forward and Backward Transformation for a Robot with Three Joints

• Let us consider a manipulator with three degrees-of-freedom, all

rotational, in which the third joint represents a simple wrist.
• The robot is a RR:R configuration is shown below:

• The robot is limited to the x-z plane and the origin of the axis system at the
[Link], UCEV
center of joint 1
Forward and Backward Transformation for a Robot with Three Joints

• The arm-and-body (RR:) provides position of the end-of-arm

• The wrist (:R) provides orientation.

• For the forward transformation, the X and Z coordinates can be

calculated as follows:

• Let α the orientation angle. It is the angle made by the wrist with the
horizontal. It equals the algebraic sum of the three joint angles:

[Link], UCEV
Forward and Backward Transformation for a Robot with Three Joints
• In the backward transformation, we are given the world coordinates X, Z, and α,
and we want to calculate the joint values θ1, θ2 and θ3 that will achieve those
coordinates.
• This is accomplished by first determining the coordinates of joint 3 as follows:

• Knowing the coordinates of joint 3, the problem of determining θ1 and θ2 is as

follows:

• The value of joint 3 is then determined as

[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
Forward and Backward Transformation for a Robot with Four Joints in Three
Dimensions
• Consider the four degree-of-freedom robot shown below. Its configuration is
TRL:R.

• Joint 1 (T type) provides rotation about Z-axis.

• Joint 2 (R type) provides rotation about a horizontal axis whose direction is determined by joint
1.
• Joint 3 (L Type) is a piston that allows linear motion in a direction determined by joints 1 and 2.
• Joint 4 (R type) provides rotation about an axis that is parallel to the axis of joint 2
[Link], UCEV
Forward and Backward Transformation for a Robot with Four Joints in Three
Dimensions

• The values of the four joints are, respectively,.θ1, θ2, λ3, and θ4.
• Given these values the forward transformation is given by:

where

[Link], UCEV
Forward and Backward Transformation for a Robot with Four Joints in Three
Dimensions

• In the backward transformation, we are given the world coordinates X, Y, Z, and α.

Where α specifies orientation.
• To find the joint values, we define the coordinates of joint 4 as follows:

[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
Unit III- Robots Drive Systems and
End Effectors

[Link], UCEV
Grippers and Tools

[Link], UCEV
 Drive systems
• Mechanical drive system
• Pneumatic drive system
• Hydraulic Drive system
• Electrical Drive system

[Link], UCEV
 Mechanical drives system
Power transmission system:
– Transmit the power
– Act as a power transformer
1. Gears
2. Power screws
3. Belts and pulley
4. Chains & sprockets

[Link], UCEV
 Gears

Transmit the rotary motion from one shaft to another

[Link], UCEV
Screw drives

[Link], UCEV
Belt and pulley

[Link], UCEV
Chain and sprockets

[Link], UCEV
 Pneumatic actuators system

• Pneumatic systems use pressurized air to make things

move. Basic pneumatic system consists of an air
generating unit and an air-consuming unit.
• Air compressed in compressor is not ready for use as
such, air has to be filtered, moisture present in air has to
be dried, and for different applications in plant pressure
of air has to be [Link], UCEV
• Several other treatments are given to the air before it reaches
finally to the actuators.
• The figure gives an overview of a pneumatic system.
Practically some accessories are added for economical and
efficient operation of system.
Compressor:
• A device, which converts mechanical force and motion into
pneumatic fluid power, is called compressor.
• Every compressed-air system begins with a compressor, as it is
the source of airflow for all the downstream equipment and
processes Electric Motor.
• Electric motor is used to drive the compressor.

[Link], UCEV
Air Receiver:
• It is a container in which air is stored under pressure.
Pressure Switch.
• Pressure Switch is used to maintain the required pressure
in the receiver; it adjusts the High Pressure Limit and Low
Pressure Limit in the receiver.
• The compressor is automatically turned off when the
pressure is about to exceed the high limit and it is also
automatically turned on when the pressure is about to
fall below the low limit.
Safety Valve:
The function of the safety valve is to release extra pressure
if the pressure inside the receiver tends to exceed the safe
pressure limit of the receiver.

[Link], UCEV
Check Valve:
• The valve enables flow in one direction and blocks flow in a
counter direction is called Check valve.
• Once compressed air enters the receiver via check valve, it is
not allowed to go back even when the compressor is stopped.
Direction Control Valve:
• Directional-control valve are devices used to change the flow
direction of fluid within a Pneumatic/Hydraulic circuit.
• They control compressed-air flow to cylinders, rotary
actuators, grippers, and other mechanisms in packaging,
handling, assembly, and countless other applications.
• These valves can be actuated either manually or electrically.

[Link], UCEV
Pneumatic Actuator:
• A device in which power is transferred from one pressurized
medium to another without intensification.
• Pneumatic actuators are normally used to control processes
requiring quick and accurate response, as they do not require
a large amount of motive force.
• They may be reciprocating cylinders, rotating motors or may
be a robot end effectors.

[Link], UCEV
Advantages:
1. Pneumatic systems are more economical
then hydraulic system
2. Easy installation
3. Low cost
4. High Speed
Disadvantages:
1. Low precision
2. Air needs conditioning
3. High noise

[Link], UCEV
 HYDRAULIC DRIVES

Main components:
• Hydraulic cylinder
• A hydraulic pump
• Electric motor
• Cooling system
• Reservoir
• Valves
• Connecting hoses
• sensors
[Link], UCEV
• Hydraulic drives are either linear position actuators or
a rotary vane configuration.
• Hydraulic actuators provide a large amount of power
for a given actuator.
• The high power-to-weight ratio makes the hydraulic
actuator an attractive choice for moving moderate to
high loads at reasonable speeds and moderate noise
level.
• Hydraulic motors usually provide a more efficient way
of energy to achieve a better performance, but they
are expensive and generally less accurate.

[Link], UCEV
Advantages:
• High precision
• Greater strength
Disadvantages:
• Expensive
• High maintenance required
• Not energy efficient
• Not suited for clean air environment

[Link], UCEV
 Electrical Drive system

• All robots use electricity as the primary source of

energy.
• Electricity turns the pumps that provide hydraulic and
pneumatic pressure.
• It also powers the robot controller and all the
electronic components and peripheral devices.
• In all electric robots, the drive actuators, as well as the
controller, are electrically powered.
• Because electric robots do not require a hydraulic
power unit, they conserve floor space and decrease
factory noise.
• No energy conversion is required.
[Link], UCEV
 STEPPER MOTOR

• A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses

into discrete mechanical movements.
• The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete step increments when
electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence.

[Link], UCEV
• The motors rotation has several direct relationships to these
applied input pulses. The sequence of the applied pulses is
directly related to the direction of motor shafts rotation.
• The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to
the frequency of the input pulses and the length of rotation is
directly related to the number of input pulses applied.
• This mean that a digital signal is used to drive the motor and
every time it receives a digital pulse it rotates a specific
number of degrees in rotation.

[Link], UCEV
Advantages Of Stepper Motors:
• Position error is noncumulative. A high accuracy of motion
is possible, even under open-loop control.
• Large savings in sensor (measurement system) and
controller costs are possible when the open loop mode is
used.
• Because of the incremental nature of command and
motion, stepper motors are easily adaptable to digital
control applications.
• No serious stability problems exist, even under open-loop
control.
• Torque capacity and power requirements can be optimized
and the response can be controlled by electronic switching.
• Brushless construction has obvious advantages.

[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
 END EFFECTORS
End effector is a device that is attached to the end of the wrist arm to
perform specific task.
Two types:
• Grippers – to grasp and manipulate objects (e.g., parts) during work
cycle
• Tools – to perform a process, e.g., spot welding, spray painting

[Link], UCEV
 GRIPPER

• End-effector that holds or grasp an object (in

assembly, pick and place operation and
material handling) to perform some task.
Four Major Types of gripper
[Link]
[Link] or vacuum cups
[Link] gripper
[Link]
[Link], UCEV
 MECHANICAL GRIPPER
It is an end effector that uses mechanical fingers actuated by a
mechanism to grasp an object.
Two ways of constraining part in gripper
1. Physical construction of parts within finger. Finger encloses
the part to some extent and thereby designing the contact surface of
finger to be in approximate shape of part geometry.
2. Holding the part is by friction between fingers and workpart. Finger
must apply force that is sufficient for friction to retain the part against
gravity.

[Link], UCEV
• To resist the slippage, the gripper must be designed to exert a
force that depends on the weight of the part, coeff of friction
and acceleration of part.

[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
 MECHANICAL GRIPPER MECHANISM

Two ways of gripper mechanism based on finger movement

[Link] movement – Eg. Link actuation
[Link] or translational movement – Eg. Screw and cylinder

Four ways of gripper mechanism based on kinematic devices

[Link] actuation
[Link] and rack actuation
[Link] actuation
[Link] actuation

[Link], UCEV
 MECHANICAL GRIPPER MECHANISM

1. Linkage actuation

[Link], UCEV
 MECHANICAL GRIPPER MECHANISM
2. Gear and rack actuation

[Link], UCEV
 MECHANICAL GRIPPER MECHANISM

[Link] actuation

[Link], UCEV
 Mechanical Gripper Mechanism

4. Screw actuation

[Link], UCEV
MAGNETIC GRIPPERS

[Link], UCEV
Magnetic grippers are used extensively on ferrous materials.
In general, magnetic grippers offer the following advantages in
robotic handling operations
• Variations in part size can be tolerated
• Pickup times are very fast
• They have ability to handle metal parts with holes
• Only one surface is required for gripping

The residual magnetism remaining in the work piece may

cause problems. Mother potential disadvantage is the
problem of picking up one sheet at a time from a stack. The
magnetic attraction tends to penetrate beyond the top sheet
in the stack, resulting in the possibility that more than a single
sheet will be lifted by the magnet.

[Link], UCEV
Magnetic grippers can use either electromagnets or permanent
magnets. Electromagnetic grippers are easier to control, but require a
source of dc power and an appropriate controller. When the part is to
be released, the control unit reverses the polarity at a reduced power
level before switching off the electromagnet. This procedure acts to
cancel the residual magnetism in the work place ensuring a positive
release of the part. The attractive force, P of an electromagnet is found
from Maxwell‘s equation given by

[Link], UCEV
• Permanent magnets do not require an external power and
hence they can be used in hazardous and explosive
environments, because there is no danger of sparks which
might cause ignition in such environments.
• When the part is to be released at the end of the handling
cycle, in case of permanent magnet grippers, some means of
separating the part from the magnet must be provided. One
such stripping device is shown in figure.

[Link], UCEV
Vacuum Gripper

[Link], UCEV
 Vacuum Gripper
• Venturi device used to operate a suction cup.
F = PA
Where, F - The force or lift capacity in Ib
P - Negative pressure
A - Total effective area of the suction cups used to create
the vacuum
Advantages:
1. It requires only one surface of the part for grasping.
2. Applies a uniform pressure distribution on the surface of the part
3. Relatively light weight gripper
4. Applicable to a variety of different materials
Disadvantages:
1. Not suitable for parts contains holes on its grasping surface
2. Parts required flat surface
[Link], UCEV
 Adhesive Gripper

• Used to handle fabrics and light weight materials

• Adhesive substance can be used for grasping action.
• One contact surface is needed.
• The reliability is diminished with successive operation.
• It is used to lift light weight object.

[Link], UCEV
 OTHER TYPES OF GRIPPER

• Inflatable bladder
• Two-finger clamp
• Vacuum cups
• Three-fingers clamp
• Magnet head
• Tubing pickup device

[Link], UCEV
 End-of-Arm-Tooling
• This general class of devices is also called end-of-arm tooling
(EOAT).
• Robot end-of-arm tooling is not limited to various kinds of
gripping devices.
• Grippers not available by default in general-purpose robots
• In some situations, a robot must change its gripper during its
task. If so, the robot's wrist must be fitted with a quick-
disconnect device.
Tool as robot End effector
• Spot Welding Tools
• Arc welding Torch
• Spray painting nozzle
• Water jet cutting tool

[Link], UCEV
Design Consideration in Gripper Selection

[Link], UCEV
Design Consideration in Gripper Selection

[Link], UCEV
Design Consideration in Gripper Selection

[Link], UCEV
UNIT IV - SENSORS IN ROBOTICS

[Link], UCEV
 Sensor
• Sensor is a basic component of transducer.

• The purpose of a sensor is to respond to some kind of an

input physical property and to convert it into an electrical
signal which is compatible with electronic circuits.

• The sensor output signal may be in the form of voltage,

current, or charge.

[Link], UCEV
 Use of sensors
• Safety monitoring
• Interlocks in work cell control
• Part inspection for quality control
• Determining positions and related
information's about objects in the robot cell.
– Work part identification
– Random position & orientation of parts in the
workcell.

[Link], UCEV
 Why do Robots need sensors?
• Provides “awareness” of surroundings
– What’s ahead, around, “out there”?
• Allows interaction with environment
– Robot lawn mower can “see” cut grass
• Protection & Self-Preservation
– Safety, Damage Prevention, Stairwell sensor
• Gives the robot capability to goal-seek
– Find colorful objects, seek goals
• Makes robots “interesting”
[Link], UCEV
 What can be sensed?
• Light
– Presence, color, intensity, content (mod), direction
• Sound
– Presence, frequency, intensity, content (mod),
direction
• Heat
– Temperature, wavelength, magnitude, direction
• Chemicals
– Presence, concentration, identity, etc.
• Object Proximity
– Presence/absence, distance, bearing, color, etc.

[Link], UCEV
• Physical orientation/attitude/position
– Magnitude, pitch, roll, yaw, coordinates, etc.
• Magnetic & Electric Fields
– Presence, magnitude, orientation, content (mod)
• Resistance (electrical, indirectly via V/I)
– Presence, magnitude, etc.
• Capacitance (via excitation/oscillation)
– Presence, magnitude, etc.
• Inductance (via excitation/oscillation)
– Presence, magnitude, etc.

[Link], UCEV
 Types of Sensors
• Position sensor
• Range sensor
• Touch sensor
• Proximity sensor
• Force and Torque sensor
• Velocity sensor
• Compliance sensor
• Slip Sensors
• Frame grabbers

[Link], UCEV
 Position Sensor
• Its provides necessary means for determining
whether the joints have moved to correct
linear or rotational locations in order to
achieve the required position and orientation
of the end effectors.
• Types
1. Potentiometer
2. Resolvers
3. Encoders

[Link], UCEV
 Potentiometer
It is analog device whose output voltage is
proportional to the position of wiper.

Vo(t)=Kpθ(t)
Vo= Vex (θact/ θtot)

Where,
Vo- Output voltage
Kp- Voltage constant
Θ(t)- _Position of the pot
Vex – Excitation voltage
Θtot – total travel available
Θ act – Actual position of wiper
[Link], UCEV
 Resolvers
• A resolver is another type of analog device which output is
proportional to the angle of rotation element with respect to
a fixed element
• It has single winding in rotor and a part of windings on its
stator.
• Stator windings are 90 degree apart.

Vs1(t) = A Sin (wt) Sin θ

Vs2 (t) = A Sin (wt) Cos θ

θ – Angle of rotation with respect to Stator

[Link], UCEV
 Encoders
• It is an angular position sensor.
• Angular displacement to be converted directly into a digital
form.
• An optical encoder is an electromechanical device which has
an electrical out-put in digital form proportional to the
angular position of the input shaft.

[Link], UCEV
 Proximity sensor
 Proximity sensors are devices that indicate when one object is close
to another object.
 The distances can be several millimeters and feet.
 Widely used in general industrial automation
 – Conveyor lines (counting, jam detection, etc)
 – Machine tools (safety interlock, sequencing)
 Usually digital (on/off) sensors detecting the presence or absence
of an object

[Link], UCEV
 Tactile Sensor
• Tactile sensors are device which indicates
contact between themselves and some other
solid objects.
• Types:
1. Touch Sensor
2. Force Sensor

[Link], UCEV
 Touch Sensor
Touch Sensor used to indicate that contact has
been made between two objects without regard
to the magnitude of the contacting force.

Types of Touch Sensor:

i) Binary
ii) Analog

[Link], UCEV
1. Binary Sensor

Simple robot that equipped with binary touch sensor

[Link], UCEV
 Analog Sensor
• Output is proportional to the local force
• It 6uses simplest mechanical device

[Link], UCEV
 Force Sensor
The fundamental operating principles of force, acceleration, and
torque instrumentation are closely allied to the piezoelectric and
strain gage devices used to measure static and dynamic pressures.
Piezoelectric sensor produces a voltage when it is "squeezed" by a
force that is proportional to the force applied.
Difference between these devices and static force detection
devices such as strain gages is that the electrical signal generated
by the crystal decays rapidly after the application of force.
The high impedance electrical signal generated by the
piezoelectric crystal is converted to a low impedance signal
suitable for such an instrument as a digital storage oscilloscope.
Depending on the application requirements, dynamic force can be
measured as either compression, tensile, or torque force.
Applications may include the measurement of spring or sliding
friction forces, chain tensions, clutch release forces.

[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
 Torque Sensors
Torque is measured by either sensing the actual shaft
deflection caused by a twisting force, or by detecting
the effects of this deflection.
The surface of a shaft under torque will experience
compression and tension, as shown in Figure.
To measure torque, strain gage elements usually are
mounted in pairs on the shaft, one gauge measuring the
increase in length (in the direction in which the surface
is under tension), the other measuring the decrease in
length in the other direction.

[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
 Load Cell

Strain Gauge
• Strain gauge load cells usually
feature four strain gauges in a
Wheatstone bridge configuration,
which is an electrical circuit that
balances two legs of a bridge
circuit.

[Link], UCEV
• The force being measured deforms the
strain gauge in this type of load cell
• The deformation is measured as
change in electrical signal.
• There are several common strain
gauge load cell configurations,
including shear beam, s-type, and
compression.
• R1 and R4 Vertical along the load
applied direction
• R3 & R4 Horizontal along the load
applied direction
• Output voltage is proportional to
change in resistance.

[Link], UCEV
 LVDT
Linear variable differential transformers (LVDT) are used to measure displacement.

[Link], UCEV
 LVDT
• LVDTs operate on the principle of a transformer.
• LVDT consists of a coil assembly and a core.
• The coil assembly is typically mounted to a stationary form,
while the core is secured to the object whose position is
being measured.
• The coil assembly consists of three coils of wire wound on
the hollow form.
• A core of permeable material can slide freely through the
center of the form.
• The inner coil is the primary, which is excited by an AC
source as shown.
• Magnetic flux produced by the primary is coupled to the
two secondary coils, inducing an AC voltage in each coil.
[Link], UCEV
 Piezo-Electric Transducer
• The Piezoelectric transducer is an electroacoustic
transducer use for conversion of pressure or mechanical
stress into an alternating electrical force. It is used for
measuring the physical quantity like force, pressure, stress,
etc., which is directly not possible to measure.

[Link], UCEV
• The EMF develops because of the displacement of the
charges. The effect is changeable, i.e. if the varying potential
applies to a piezoelectric transducer, it will change the
dimension of the material or deform it. This effect is known as
the piezoelectric effect.
• The piezo transducer converts the physical quantity into an
electrical voltage which is easily measured by analogue and
digital meter.
• The piezoelectric transducer uses the piezoelectric material
which has a special property, i.e. the material induces voltage
when the pressure or stress applied to it. The material which
shows such property is known as the electro-resistive
element.

[Link], UCEV
 Tactile Sensor
 Tactile sensor are devices which measures the
parameters of a contact between the sensor and an
object.
 A tactile sensor consists of an array of touch
sensitive sites, the sites may be capable of measuring
more than one property.
 The contact forces measured by a sensor are able to
convey a large amount of information about the state
of a grip.
 Texture, slip, impact and other contact conditions
generate force and position signatures, that can be
used to identify the state of a manipulation.

[Link], UCEV
Tactile Array sensors

[Link], UCEV
 Tactile Array sensors

Two Films:
1. Soft film
2. Polyvinylidene fluoride
[Link], UCEV
 Tactile Array sensors
• Presence of object
• Shape, locations, orientation of the object
• Contact area and pressure at that point
• Magnitude, location and direction of the force
• Moments, magnitude, plane and the direction

[Link], UCEV
 Range Sensor
• The distance between the object and the robot hand is
measured using the range sensors Within it is range of
operation.
• The calculation of the distance is by visual processing. Range
sensors find use in robot navigation and avoidance of the
obstacles in the path.
• The location and the general shape characteristics of the part
in the work envelope of the robot is done by special
applications for the range sensors.
• There are several approaches like, triangulation method,
structured lighting approach and time-of flight range finders
etc.
• In these cases the source of illumination can be light-source,
laser beam or based on ultrasonic.

[Link], UCEV
 Triangulation Method
• The object is swept over by a narrow beam of sharp light.
• The sensor focused on a small spot of the object surface
detects the reflected beam of light.

[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
Structured Lighting Approach

[Link], UCEV
• This approach consists of projecting a light
pattern the distortion of the pattern to
calculate the range. A pattern in use today is a
sheet of light generated narrow slit.
• The intersectio yields a light Stripe which is
viewed through a television camera displaced
a distance B from the light source.

[Link], UCEV
• The stripe pattern is easily analyzed by a computer to obtain range
information. For example, an inflection indicates a change of
surface, and a break corresponds to a gap between surfaces.
•
• Specific range values are computed by first calibrating the system.
One of the simplest arrangements is shown in Figure, which
represents a top view of Figure.
•
• In this, arrangement, the light source and camera are placed at the
same height, and the sheet of light is perpendicular to the line
joining the origin of the light sheet and the center of the camera
lens.
•

[Link], UCEV
• We call the vertical plane containing this line the reference
plane.
• Clearly, the reference plane is perpendicular to the sheet of
light, and any vertical flat surface that intersects the sheet
will produce a vertical stripe of light in which every point
will have the same perpendicular distance to the reference
plane. –
• The objective of the arrangement shown in Figure. is to
position the camera so that every such vertical stripe also
appears vertical in the image plane.
• In this way, every point, the same column in the image will
be known to have the same distance to the ‗reference
plane.

[Link], UCEV
 Characteristics of Sensors
• Resolution
• It is the minimum step size within the range of
measurement of a sensor in a wire-wound
potentiometer, it will be equal to resistance of
one turn of wire.
• Sensitivity:
• It is defined as the change in output response
divided by the change in input response.
• Highly sensitive sensors show larger fluctuations
in output as a result of fluctuations in input.

[Link], UCEV
• Linearity:
• It represents the relationship between input
variations and output variations.
• In a sensor with linear output, any change in
input at any level within the range will produce
the same change in output.
• Range:
It is the difference between the smallest and
the largest outputs that a sensor can provide, or the
difference between the smallest and largest inputs
with which it can operate properly.
[Link], UCEV
• Response time:
• It is the time that a a certain sensor‘s percentage output of
total change.
• It is also defined as the time required to observe the
change in output as a result of change in input for example,
ordinary mercury thermometer response time and digital
thermometer response time.

• Frequency response:
• The frequency response is the range i to the input remains
relatively high.
• The larger the range of frequency response, the better the
ability of the system to respond to varying input.
[Link], UCEV
• Reliability:
• It is the ratio between the number of times a system
operates properly and the number of times it is tried.
• For continuous satisfactory operation, it is necessary
to choose reliable sensors that last long while
considering the cost as well as other requirements.
• Accuracy:
• It shows how close the output of the sensor is to the
expected value.
• For a given input, certain expected output value is
related to how close the sensor‘s output value is to this
value.
[Link], UCEV
• Repeatability:
• Also, a specific range is desirable for operational
performance as the performance of robots depends on
sensors.
• Repeatability is a random phenomenon and hence there is
no compensation.
• Interfacing:
• Direct interfacing of the sensor to the
microcontroller/microprocessor is desirable while some
add-on circuit may be necessary in certain special sensors.
• The type of the sensor output is equally important. An ADC
is required for analogue output sensors for example,
potentiometer output to microcontroller.

[Link], UCEV
• Size, weight and volume:
• Size is a critical consideration for joint
displacement sensors.
• When robots are used as dynamic machines,
weight of the sensor is important.
• Volume or spaces also critical to micro robots and
mobile robots used for surveillance.
• Cost is important especially when quantity
involved is large in the end application.

[Link], UCEV
 Force/Torque Measurement
 Force and torque measurement finds application in many
practical and experimental studies as well as in control
applications.
 Force-motion causality. When measuring force, it can be
critical to understand whether force is the input or output
to the sensor.
 Design of a force sensors relies on deflection, so
measurement of motion or displacement can be used to
measure force, and in this way the two are intimately
related.

[Link], UCEV
 Design of a Force Sensor
 Consider a simple sensor that is to be developed to
measure a reaction force at the base of a spring, as
shown below.

[Link], UCEV
Sensor Mechanisms for Force
 In the force sensor design given, no specific
sensing mechanism was implied. The constraint
placed on the stiffness exists for any type of force
sensor.
 It is clear, however, that the force sensor will have
to respond to a force and provide an output
voltage. This can be done in different ways.

[Link], UCEV
 Sensing Mechanisms
 To measure force, it is usually necessary to design a
mechanical structure that determines the stiffness. This
structure may itself be a sensing material.
 Force will induce stress, leading to strain which can be
detected, most commonly, by
– strain gages (via piezoresistive effect)
– some crystals or ceramics (via piezoelectric effect)
 Force can also be detected using a displacement sensor,
such as an LVDT.

[Link], UCEV
Strain-gage Force Sensor Design
 Let’s consider now the force sensor studied
earlier, and consider a design that will use
one strain gage on an axially loaded material.

[Link], UCEV
 Strain guages
 Many types of force\torque sensors are based on
strain gage measurements.
 The measurements can be directly related to
stress and force and may be used to measure
other types of variables including displacement
and acceleration

[Link], UCEV
 What’s a strain gauge?
 The electrical resistance of a length of wire
varies in direct proportion to the change in any
strain applied to it. That’s the principle upon
which the strain gauge works.
 The most accurate way to measure this change
in resistance is by using the wheatstone bridge.
 The majority of strain gauges are foil types,
available in a wide choice of shapes and sizes to
suit a variety of applications.
 They consist of a pattern of resistive foil which
is mounted on a backing material.

[Link], UCEV
 Torque Sensor
Torque is a measure of the forces that causes an object
to rotate.

Reaction torque sensors measure static and dynamic

torque with a stationary or non-rotating transducer.

Rotary torque sensors use rotary transducers to

measure torque.

[Link], UCEV
 Technology
Magnetoelastic : A magnetoelastic torque sensor
detects changes in permeability by measuring
changes in its own magnetic field.
Piezoelectric : A piezoelectric material is compressed
and generates a charge, which is measured by a
charge amplifier.
Strain guage : To measure torque,strain guage
elements usually are mounted in pairs on the
shaft,one guage measuring the increase in length the
other measuring the decrease in the other direction.

[Link], UCEV
Figures showing Torque sensors

[Link], UCEV
 Torque Measurement
 The need for torque measurements has led to
several methods of acquiring reliable data from
objects moving. A torque sensor, or transducer,
converts torque into an electrical signal.
 The most common transducer is a strain guage that
converts torque into a change in electrical
resistance.
 The strain guage is bonded to a beam or structural
member that deforms when a torque or force is
applied.
[Link], UCEV
 Torque measurement contd..
 Deflection induces a stress that changes its resistance.
A wheatstone bridge converts the resistance change
into a calibrated output signal.
 The design of a reaction torque cell seeks to eliminate
side loading (bending) and axial loading, and is
sensitive only to torque loading.
 The sensor’s output is a function of force and
distance, and is usually expressed in inch-pounds,
foot-pounds or Newton-meters.

[Link], UCEV
 Classification of torque sensors
 Torques can be divided into two major
categories, either static or dynamic.

 The methods used to measure torque can be

further divided into two more categories, either
reaction or in-line.

 A dynamic force involves acceleration, were a

static force does not.

[Link], UCEV
 Classification of torque sensors contd..

 In reaction method the dynamic torque produced

by an engine would be measured by placing an
inline torque sensor between the crankshaft and
the flywheel, avoiding the rotational inertia of
the flywheel and any losses from the
transmission.
 In-line torque measurements are made by
inserting a torque sensor between torque
carrying components, much like inserting an
excitation between a socket and a socket
wrench.
[Link], UCEV
 Technical obstacles
 Getting power to the gages over the
stationary/rotating gap and getting the signal
back.

 The methods to bridge the gap are either contact

or non-contact.

[Link], UCEV
 Contact/Non-contact methods
 Contact: slip rings are used in contact-type
torque sensors to apply power to and retrive the
signal from strain gages mounted on the rotating
shaft.

 Non-contact: the rotary transformer couples the

strain gages for power and signal return. The
rotary transformer works on the same principle
as any conventional transformer except either
the primary or secondary coils rotate.
[Link], UCEV
 Applications of force/torque sensors
 In robotic tactile and manufacturing applications
 In control systems when motion feedback is
employed.
 In process testing, monitoring and diagnostics
applications.
 In measurement of power transmitted through a
rotating device.
 In controlling complex non-linear mechanical
systems.

[Link], UCEV
 SLIP SENSOR
• Slip may be regarded as the relative moment
of ones object one surface over an other when
in contact.
• It is prevent the object being dropped due to
the applications of a low gripping force.
1. Interpretation of tactile array information
2. Slip sensing based on touch sensing
information
3. Sensors to specifically detect slip.
[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
WRIST FORCE SENSOR

[Link], UCEV
 Remote Centre Compliance

• It is used for automated assembly application

• It provides compliance for misalignment during assembly

Three type of Compliance

1. Lateral
2. Rotational
3. Axial

[Link], UCEV
Remote Centre Compliance

[Link], UCEV
 Sniff sensor
• Smoke detectors, theses a5re sensitive to
particular gases and send a signal when they
detect these gases.
• It is used for safety as well as search and
detection purpose.

[Link], UCEV
 Speech (or) voice Recognition sensor
• The process of machine listening to speech or
voice and identify the words is called speech
voice recognition
• Converting an acoustic signal captured by
microphone or telephone to a set of words.
Two important parts of speech/voice
recognition:
[Link] the series of sounds
2. Identified the word from the sound
[Link], UCEV
Recognition technique depends also on many
parameters:
[Link] mode
2. Speaking style
3. Speaker enrollment
4. Size of vocabulary
5. Language mode
6. Transducer

[Link], UCEV
 Voice (or) Speech Synthesis
• Process of producing sound /speech through
machine
• TTS (Text to speech synthesis)
Applications:
1. Robot toys
2. Robot video games
3. Standard telephone time announcement
4. Arrival and departs time announcement in
railways
5. Many machine voices are prerecorded and
accessed as needed.

[Link], UCEV
 Machine Vision
• It is the process of applying a range of technologies and
methods to provide imaging-based automatic inspection,
process control and robot guidance in industrial applications.
• The primary uses for machine vision are automatic inspection
and robot guidance. Common MV applications include quality
assurance, sorting, material handling, robot guidance, and
optical gauging.
• creates a model of the real world from images recovers useful
information about a scene from its two dimensional
projections

[Link], UCEV
• Machine vision system is a sensor used in the robots
for viewing and recognizing an object with the help of a
computer.
• It is mostly used in the industrial robots
for inspection purposes. This system is also known
as artificial vision or computer vision.
• It has several components such as a camera, digital
computer, digitizing hardware, and an interface
hardware & software.
• The machine vision process includes three important
tasks, namely:
1. Sensing & Digitizing Image Data
2. Image Processing & Analysis
3. Applications

[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
 Camera
1. Charge Coupled Device (CCD)
2. Vidicon Camera
3. Solid State Camera
4. Charge Injection Device
5. Pinhole Camera
6. Silicon Bipolar Camera

[Link], UCEV
 Charge Coupled Device (CCD)
Charge Coupled Devices can be defined in different ways according to the application
for which they are used or based on the design of the device.
It is a device used for the movement of electrical charge within it for the charge
manipulation, which is done by changing the signals through stages within the device
one at a time.

[Link], UCEV
• It can be treated as CCD sensor, which is used
in the digital and video cameras for taking
images and recording videos through
photoelectric effect. It is used for converting
the captured light into digital data, which is
recorded by the camera.
• It can be defined as a light-sensitive integrated
circuit imprinted on a silicon surface to form
light-sensitive elements called pixels, and each
pixel is converted into an electrical charge.

[Link], UCEV
 CCD

[Link], UCEV
Vidicon Camera

[Link], UCEV
• The Vidicon operates on the principle of
photoconductivity, where the resistance of the
target material shows a marked decrease when
exposed to light. Vidicon is a short tube with a
length of 12 to 20 cm and diameter between 1.5
and 4 cm. Its life is estimated to be between 5000
and 20,000 hours.
• The target consists of a thin photo conductive
layer of either selenium or anti-mony
compounds. This is deposited on a transparent
conducting film, coated on the inner surface of
the face plate. This conductive coating is known
as signal electrode or plate
[Link], UCEV
• Image side of the photolayer, which is in contact
with the signal electrode, is connected to DC
supply through the load resistance. The beam
that emerges from the electron gun is focused on
surface of the photo conductive layer by
combined action of uniform magnetic field of an
external coil and electrostatic field of grid No 3.
• Grid No. 4 provides a uniform decelerating field
between itself, and the photo conductive layer, so
that the electron beam approaches the layer with
a low velocity to prevent any secondary emission.

[Link], UCEV
Charge Image:
• The photolayer has a thickness of about 0.0001 cm, and behaves
like an insulator with a resistance of approximately 20 MΩ when in
dark.
• With light focused on it, the photon energy enables more electrons
to go to the conduction band and this reduces its resistivity. When
bright light falls on any area of the photoconductive coating,
resistance across the thickness of that portion gets reduces to
about 2 MΩ.
• Thus, with an image on the target, each point on the gun side of the
photolayer assumes a certain potential with respect to the DC
supply, depending on its resistance to the signal plate.
• An area with high illumination may attain a potential of about + 39
V on the beam side. Similarly dark areas, on account of high
resistance of the photolayer may rise to only about + 35 volts.
• Thus, a pattern of positive potentials appears, on the gun side of
the photolayer, producing a charge image that corresponds to the
incident optical image.

[Link], UCEV
Storage section:
• Though light from the scene falls continuously on
the target, each element of the photocoating is
scanned at intervals equal to the frame time.
• This results in storage action and the net change
in resistance, at any point or element on the
photoconductive layer, depends on the time,
which elapses between two successive scannings
and the intensity of incident light.
• Since storage time for all points on the target
plate is same, the net change in resistance of all
elementary areas is proportional to light intensity
variations in the scene being televised.

[Link], UCEV
Applications:
• Earlier types of vidicons were used only where
there was no fast movement because of
inherent lag.
• These applications included slides, pictures,
closed circuit TV etc.
• The present day improved vidicon finds wide
applications in education, medicine, industry,
aerospace and oceanography.
• It is, perhaps, the most popular tube in the
television industry.

[Link], UCEV
LIGHTING TECHNIQUES

[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
Dark Field

[Link], UCEV
BACK LIGHTING

[Link], UCEV
DIFFUSE DOME

[Link], UCEV
CO AXIAL DIFFUSE DOME

[Link], UCEV
Stages of machine vision:

[Link], UCEV
 Image formation
• Perspective Projection
• Orthographic projection

[Link], UCEV
 Image Processing
• Filtering, Smoothing, Thinning ,
Expending ,Shrinking ,Compressing

[Link], UCEV
 Image Segmentation
• Classify pixels into groups having similar
characteristics

[Link], UCEV
 Image analysis
• Measurements: Size, Position,
Orientation, Spatial relationship, Gray
scale or color intensity

[Link], UCEV
 Sensing and digitizing
Image sensing requires some type of image formation device such
as camera and a digitizer which stores a video frame in the
computer memory. We divide the sensing and digitizing into
several steps. The initial step involves capturing the image of the
scene with the vision camera. The image consists of relative light
intensities corresponding to the various portions of the scene.
These light intensities are continuous analog values which must be
sampled and converted into digital form.
The second step of digitixing is achieved by an analog –to –digital
converter. The A/D converter is either a part of a digital video
camera or the front end of a frame grabber. The choice is
dependent on the type of hardware system. The frame grabber,
representing the third step is an image storage and computation
device which stores a given pixel array.
[Link], UCEV
Image processing and analysis

Enrollment

Fingerprint Template
Feature Extractor
sensor database

Identification

Fingerprint
Feature Extractor
sensor

ID

[Link], UCEV
Arch Loop
Whorl

[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
UNIT V PROGRAMMING AND
APPLICATIONS OF ROBOT

[Link], UCEV
 Robot Programming methods

• Manual method
• Walkthrough method
• Lead through method
• Off-line programming

[Link], UCEV
 Robot Programming Languages
The VALTM Language
The VAL language was developed for PUMA robot
Monitor command are set of administrative
instructions that direct the operation of the
robot system. Some of the functions of Monitor
commands are
Preparing the system for the user to write programs
for PUMA
Defining points in space
Commanding the PUMA to execute a program
Listing program on the CRT
• Examples for monitor commands are: EDIT, EXECUTE,
SPEED, HERE etc.
[Link], UCEV
 The MCL Language
 MCL stands for Machine Control Language developed by Douglas.
 The language is based on the APT and NC language. Designed control
complete
 manufacturing cell.
 MCL is enhancement of APT which possesses additional options and
features needed
 to do off-line programming of robotic work cell.
 Additional vocabulary words were developed to provide the supplementary
 capabilities intended to be covered by the MCL. These capability include
Vision,
 Inspection and Control of signals
 MCL also permits the user to define MACROS like statement that would be
 convenient to use for specialized applications.
 MCL program is needed to compile to produce CLFILE.
 Some commands of MCL programming languages are DEVICE, SEND,
RECEIV,
 WORKPT, ABORT, TASK, REGION, LOCATE etc.

[Link], UCEV
Robot motion programming commands

MOVE P1
HERE P1 -used during leadthrough of manipulator
MOVES P1
DMOVE(4, 125)
APPROACH P1, 40 MM
DEPART 40 MM
DEFINE PATH123 = PATH(P1, P2, P3)
MOVE PATH123
SPEED 75

Input interlock:
WAIT 20, ON
Output interlock:
SIGNAL 10, ON
SIGNAL 10, 6.0
Interlock for continuous monitoring:
REACT 25, SAFESTOP

Gripper
OPEN
CLOSE
Sensor and servo-controlled hands
CLOSE 25 MM

[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
 What is Intelligence?
• Intelligence:
– “the capacity to learn and solve problems”
(Websters dictionary)
– in particular,
• the ability to solve novel problems
• the ability to act rationally

• the ability to act like humans.

• Artificial Intelligence
– build and understand intelligent entities or agents
– 2 main approaches: “engineering” versus “cognitive
modeling”

[Link], UCEV
 What’s involved in Intelligence?
Ability to interact with the real world
 to perceive, understand, and act
 e.g., speech recognition and understanding and synthesis
 e.g., image understanding
 e.g., ability to take actions, have an effect
Reasoning and Planning
 modeling the external world, given input
 solving new problems, planning, and making decisions
 ability to deal with unexpected problems, uncertainties
Learning and Adaptation
 we are continuously learning and adapting
 our internal models are always being “updated”
e.g., a baby learning to categorize and recognize animals

[Link], UCEV
Applications of AI and Robotics

• Industrial Automation
• Services for the Disabled
• Vision Systems
• Planetary Exploration
• Mine Site Clearing
• Law Enforcement

[Link], UCEV
 ROBOT APPLICATIONS
• Work environment hazardous for human
beings
• Repetitive tasks
• Boring and unpleasant tasks
• Multi shift operations
• Infrequent changeovers
• Performing at a steady pace
• Operating for long hours without rest
• Responding in automated operations
• Minimizing variation
[Link], UCEV
 Industrial Robot Applications
Material-handling applications:
• Involve the movement of material or parts from one location to
another.
• It includes part placement, palletizing and/or de-palletizing,
machine loading and unloading.
Processing Operations:
• Requires the robot to manipulate a special process tool as the
end effectors.
• The application include spot welding, arc welding, riveting, spray
painting, machining, metal cutting, de-burring, polishing.
Assembly Applications:
• Involve part-handling manipulations of a special tools and other
automatic tasks and operations.
Inspection Operations:
• Require the robot to position a work part to an inspection device.
• Involve the robot to manipulate a device or sensor to perform
the inspection.
[Link], UCEV
 Material Handling Applications

• This category includes the following:

• Part Placement
• Palletizing and/or depalletizing
• Machine loading and/or unloading
• Stacking and insertion operations

[Link], UCEV
 Part Placement

• The basic operation in this category is the

relatively simple pick-and-place
operation.
• This application needs a low-technology
robot of the cylindrical coordinate type.
• Only two, three, or four joints are
required for most of the applications.
• Pneumatically powered robots are often
utilized.
[Link], UCEV
 Palletizing and/or Depalletizing

• The applications require robot to stack

parts one on top of the other, that is to
palletize them, or to unstack parts by
removing from the top one by one, that is
depalletize them.
• Example: process of taking parts from the
assembly line and stacking them on a
pallet or vice versa.

[Link], UCEV
Machine loading and/or unloading
Robot transfers parts into and/or from a production machine.
There are three possible cases:
Machine loading in which the robot loads parts into a production
machine, but the parts are unloaded by some other means.
Example: a press working operation, where the robot feeds sheet
blanks into the press, but the finished parts drop out of the press
by gravity.
Machine loading in which the raw materials are fed into the
machine without robot assistance. The robot unloads the part
from the machine assisted by vision or no vision.
Example: bin picking, die casting, and plastic moulding.
Machine loading and unloading that involves both loading and
unloading of the work parts by the robot. The robot loads a raw
work part into the process ad unloads a finished part.
Example: Machine operation difficulties
Difference in cycle time between the robot and the production
machine. The cycle time of the machine may be relatively long
compared to the robot’s cycle time.
[Link], UCEV
 Stacking and insertion operation
In the stacking process the robot places flat parts on top of
each other, where the vertical location of the drop-off
position is continuously changing with cycle time.
In the insertion process robot inserts parts into the
compartments of a divided carton.
The robot must have following features to facilitate material
handling:
• The manipulator must be able to lift the parts safely.
• The robot must have the reach needed.
• The robot must have cylindrical coordinate type.
• The robot’s controller must have a large enough memory
to store all the programmed points so that the robot can
move from one location to another.
• The robot must have the speed necessary for meeting
the transfer cycle of the operation.
[Link], UCEV
 Processing operations
Robot performs a processing procedure on the part.
The robot is equipped with some type of process tooling as its end
effector.
Manipulates the tooling relative to the working part during the
cycle.
Industrial robot applications in the processing operations include:
Spot welding
Continuous arc welding
Spray painting
Metal cutting and deburring operations
Various machining operations like drilling, grinding, laser and water
jet cutting, and riveting.
Rotating and spindle operations
Adhesives and sealant dispensing

[Link], UCEV
 Assembly operations
The applications involve both material-handling and the
manipulation of a tool.
They typically include components to build the product and to
perform material handling operations.
Are traditionally labor-intensive activities in industry and are
highly repetitive and boring. Hence are logical candidates for
robotic applications.
These are classified as:
Batch assembly: As many as one million products might be
assembled.
The assembly operation has long production runs.
Low-volume: In this a sample run of ten thousand or less products
might be made.
The assembly robot cell should be a modular cell.
One of the well suited areas for robotics assembly is the insertion
of odd electronic components.

[Link], UCEV
 Inspection operation
 Some inspection operation requires parts to be manipulated, and other
applications require that an inspection tool be manipulated.
 Inspection work requires high precision and patience, and human judgment is
often needed to determine whether a product is within quality specifications or
not.
 Inspection tasks that are performed by industrial robots can usually be divided
into the following three techniques:
By using a feeler gauge or a linear displacement transducer known as a linear
variable differential transformer (LVDT), the part being measured will come in
physical contact with the instrument or by means of air pressure, which will
cause it to ride above the surface being measured.
By utilizing robotic vision, matrix video cameras are used to obtain an image of
the area of interest, which is digitized and compared to a similar image with
specified tolerance.
By involving the use of optics and light, usually a laser or infrared source is used to
illustrate the area of interest.
 The robot may be in active or passive role.
In active role robot is responsible for determining whether the part is good or
bad.
In the passive role the robot feeds a gauging station with the part. While the
gauging station is determining whether the part meets the specification, the
robot waits for the process to finish.
[Link], UCEV
 the general considerations in robot
material handling
• Part positioning orientation
• Gripper design
• Minimum distance moved
• Robot work volume
• Robot weight capacity
• Accuracy and repeatability
• Robot configuration, Degree of Freedom and
Control
• Machine utilization problems
[Link], UCEV
 Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy Precision

Definition: The degree of closeness to The degree to which an

true value. instrument or process will
repeat the same value.

Measurements: Single factor or measurement Multiple measurements or

factors are needed

About: A term used in measuring a A term used in measuring a

process or device. process or device.

Uses: Physics, chemistry, Physics, chemistry, engineering,

engineering, statistics and so statistics and so on.
on.

[Link], UCEV
 bowl feeders
• Common devices used to feed individual
component parts for assembly on
industrial production lines. They are used when
a randomly sorted bulk package of small
components must be fed into another machine
one-by-one, oriented in a particular direction

[Link], UCEV
 types of robot cell layouts
• Robot- centered cell
• In-line robot cell
• Mobile robot cell

[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
 Advantages of Robots
Robotics and automation can, in many situation, increase
productivity, safety, efficiency, quality, and consistency of
Products
Robots can work in hazardous environments
Robots need no environmental comfort
Robots work continuously without any humanity needs and
illnesses
Robots have repeatable precision at all times
Robots can be much more accurate than humans, they may
have milli or micro inch accuracy.
Robots and their sensors can have capabilities beyond that
of humans.
Robots can process multiple stimuli or tasks simultaneously,
humans can only one.
Robots replace human workers who can create economic
problems.
[Link], UCEV
 Disadvantages of Robots
 Robots lack capability to respond in emergencies, this can cause:
Inappropriate and wrong responses
A lack of decision-making power
A loss of power
Damage to the robot and other devices
Human injuries
 Robots may have limited capabilities in
Degrees of Freedom
Dexterity
Sensors
Vision systems
Real-time Response
 Robots are costly, due to
Initial cost of equipment
Installation Costs
Need for peripherals
Need for training
Need for Programming
[Link], UCEV
 Summary of Robot Applications
• 1. Hazardous work environment for humans
• 2. Repetitive work cycle
• 3. Difficult handling task for humans
• 4. Multi shift operations
• 5. Infrequent changeovers
• 6. Part position and orientation are
established in the work cell

[Link], UCEV
AUTOMATIC GUIDED VEHICLES

[Link], UCEV
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[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
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[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
RAIL GUIDED VEHICLES

[Link], UCEV
RAIL GUIDED VEHICLES

[Link], UCEV
Various steps involved for implementing the
robot in industries

[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
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[Link], UCEV
[Link], UCEV
THANK YOU

[Link], UCEV