AP Precalculus Unit 1

1.1 - Change in Tandem

Function - a mathematical relation that maps a set of input values to a set of output values.
Each input value must have exactly 1 OUTPUT VALUE
The set of input values of a function is called the domain, and is the independent
variable.
The set of output values of a function is called the range, and is the dependent
variable.
Function f is positive when the graph of f lies above the x-axis
Function f is negative when the graph of f lies below the x-axis
Graphical Behavior of Functions
Increasing Decreasing Concave Up Concave Down

as the input values as the input values the rate of change* is the rate of change* is
increase, the output increase, the output increasing decreasing
values always increase. values always decrease
*rate of change refers to the slope
1.2 - Rate of Change
Rate of Change at a Point
At the instant (point) when you are at the top of a peak or the valley, you are not
moving up or down. At these points the rate of change is neither positive nor negative;
the rate of change is zero

Average Rate of Change (AROC)

The average rate of change of a function over an interval is the constant rate of change
that yields the same change in the output values as the function yielded on that
interval. It is the ratio of the change in output values to the change in the input values
over that interval.
f (b)−f (a)
b−a
On the interval from t = a with units to t = b with units, the function in context is increasing/decreasing on
​

average at a rate of average rate of change with units.

1.3 - Rate of Change of Linear and Quadratic Functions
Linear Functions
For any linear function, the average rate of change over any length input - value
interval is constant.
Concavity
Concave up - the average rate of change over the equal length input value intervals is
increasing for all small length intervals.
Concave down - the average rate of change over the equal length input value intervals
is decreasing for all small length intervals.
1.4 - Polynomial Functions and Rate of Change
Polynomial Functions
A polynomialnfunction isn−1
any functionn−2
representation equivalent
2
to the analytical form:
p (x) = an x + an−1 x
​ ​ + an−2 x​ + … + a2 x + a1 x + a0
​ ​ ​

Leading Term: an xn Degree: n Leading Coefficient: an

​ ​

Extrema
The extrema of a graph are the minimums and maximums of a function.
Polynomials of an even degree must have either a global maximum or a global
minimum
Relative Extrema (Local) Absolute Extrema (Global)
A polynomial has a relative minimum/maximum Of all local maxima, the greatest is called the
where it switches between decreasing and absolute maximum. The least of all local minima
increasing (or at an endpoint if the polynomial has a is called the absolute minimum.
restricted domain).
 Points of Inflection
a point of inflection occurs when a function changes from concave up to concave down
or from concave down to concave up
At a point of inflection, the rate of change of a function changes from increasing to
decreasing or from decreasing to increasing,
1.5 - Polynomial Functions and Complex Zeros
Zeros of Polynomial Functions
Given a polynomial function p(x), if p(a) = 0, then a is zero or root of p(x).
If a is a real number, then if x = a is a zero of p, the (x - a) is a linear factor of p.
Repeated Zeros (Multiplicity)
if a linear factor (x - a) is repeated n times, the corresponding zero of the polynomial
has a multiplicity of n.
The multiplicity of a zero is the degree of its factor.
The graph of a polynomial will always be tangent to the x-axis at any zero with an
even multiplicity.
The graph of a polynomial will always have a POI at the x-axis of any zero with an odd
multiplicity.
Complex Roots
some polynomials have roots that contain an imaginary number. This means they will
not be seen on the graph.
All imaginary roots come in pairs. If a+bi is a root of f(x), then so is a-bi. These are
called conjugate pairs.
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
a polynomial of degree n has exactly n complex zeros when counting multiplicities.
Solving Nonlinear Inequalities (Polynomials)
1. Solve f(x)=0.
2. Creat a sign chart with the solutions from Step 1
3. Test values in each interval to see if the values in the interval are positive or negative.
4. Interpret the sign chart to answer the given inequality from the problem.
Determining the Degree a Polynomial Given a Table of Values
if given a table of values with equal length input intervals, we can determine the degree
of a polynomial by examining successive difference in the output values. The number
of successive difference needed for the difference to be constant is equal to the
degree of n of the polynomial.
 Even Functions Odd Functions
An even function is symmetric over the y - axis. f(- An odd function is symmetric about the origin.
x) = f(x) g(-x) = -g(x)

f (x) = x4 − 8x2 + 1 g (x) = x3 − 9x

1.6 - Polynomial Functions and End Behavior

End Behavior
The end behavior of a function is describes how a function changes as it moves
infinitely to the right and left.
End behavior is what happens to the values of y as x increases or decreases without
bound.
End Behaviour and Limit Notation
Left End Behavior Right End Behavior
limx→−∞ f (x)
​ limx→∞ f (x)
​

as the x values decrease without bound, the y as the x values increase without bound, the y
values of f(x) … values of f(x) …
Polynomial End Behavior
when finding the end behavior of a polynomial equation, start with the right side
Right Side
1. Goes up if the leading coefficient is positive
2. Goes down if the leading coefficient is negative
Left Side
1. Goes in the same direction as the right if the degree is even
2. Goes in the opposite direction as the right if the degree is odd
1.7 - Rational Functions and End Behavior
Rational Function
the quotient (fraction) of two polynomials
y = g(x) where f(x) and g(x) are both polynomials, and g (x) 
f (x)
​
=0
End Behavior of a Rational Function
The end behavior of a rational function is determined by the leading terms of the
numerator and denominator
axn
f (x) = bxd
​

Case 1 - The leading terms have the same degree (n = d)

Result - f(x) has a horizontal asymptote: y = ab ​
 Case 2 - The denominator dominates the numerator (n < d)
Result - f(x) has a horizontal asymptote: y = 0
Case 3 - The numerator dominates the denominator (n > d)
Result: f(x) has the end behavior of the polynomial y = ab xn−d
​

if the degree of the numerator is exactly 1 more than the degree of the denominator,
then f(x) has a slant (oblique) asymptote.
Case 1: N < D Case 2: N = D Case 3: N > D
y=0 y = ab No HA - Oblique (or other)
​

If the degree of the numerator if greater than the degree of the denominator, if nothing
cancel, use long division to find the oblique asymptote (slant).
Finding Oblique Asymptotes
1. Cancel any factors, if possible
2. Perform Long Division
3. The Quotient is the Oblique Asymptote: y=mx + b
Slant Asymptotes
If the degree of the numerator is exactly 1 great than the degree of the denominator, a
rational function will have a slant asymptote thats is parallel to the ratio of leading
terms.
f (x) = ax
n
+…+c
bx +…+c
d
1
2
where axn and bxd are the leading terms and n = d + 1,
​

f(x) has a slant asymptote parallel to the line y = ab x

​

1.8 Rational Functions and Zeros

2 Important Traits of a Rational Function
let f (x) = hg((xx)) where g(x) an h(x) have no factor in common
​

f(x) has zeros when g(x) = 0

f(x) is undefined when h(x) = 0
Solving Rational Inequalities
1. Make sure the inequality has 0 on the other side
2. Make sure f (x) = hg((xx)) (make sure you have a single rational function)
​

3. Set g(x) = 0 and h(x) = 0 to find values to include on the sign chart (make sure to
factor)
4. Create a sign chart with all value from Step 3
5. Be careful to mark the value where h(x) = 0 so that we NEVER include those values in
our solution.
6. Test values in each interval to see if the values in the interval are + or -
7. Interpret the sign chart to answer the given inequality from the problem.
1.9/1.10 - Rational Functions and Vertical Asymptotes/Holes
Rational functions have restrictions on their domain, because we cannot divide by 0, so consider
any x values where g(x) = 0 and restrict them from the domain.
These x values will be the location of either a vertical asymptote or a removable discontinuity
(hole) in the graph.
Vertical Asymptotes and Holes
A hole occurs when the factor in the denominator cancels out with the factors in the
numerator.
 A vertical asymptote occurs when a factor in the denominator cannot cancel out with
factor in the numerator
Holes Vertical Asymptote

The graph has a hole at x = 1 The graph above has a vertical asymptote at x =
1
limx→1− f (x) = 3 limx→1+ f (x) = 3
​ ​ lim f (x) = −∞
​

x→1−

lim f (x) = ∞
​

x→1+

1.11 - Equivalent Representations of Polynomial and Rational Expressions

To find the equation of a slant asymptote we will us long division
Long Division
If f(x) and g(x) are polynomials, the fg((xx)) = g (x) q (x) + r (x) , where q is the
quotient, r is the remainder, and the degree of r is less than the degree of g.
​

Pascal’s Triangle and the Binomial Theorem

The Binomial Theorem
(a + b) = ( ) an + ( ) an−1 b1 + ( ) an−2 b2 + … + ( ) a1 bn−1 + ( ) bn
n n n n n n
0 1 2 n−1
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

1. When expanding a binomial expression, the “a” begins with degree n and the “b” term
begins with a degree of 0.
2. As you expand the binomial expression, the degree of “a” decrease by one each term
while the degree of “b” increases by on each term (until the term “b” has degree n).
3. Use Pascal’s Triangle to find the values of the coefficients ( n0 ) , ( n1 ) , ( n2 ) , … in our
expansion
​ ​ ​
 The value of ( nr ) corresponds with the rth element of the nth row in Pascal’s triangle.
​

The first number in each row is the 0th element of that row.
1.12 - Transformations of Functions
Vertical Translation Horizontal Translation Vertical Dilation Horizontal Dilation
g (x) = f (x) + k g ( x ) = f ( x + h) g (x) = af (x) g (x) = f (bx)

f has a vertical translation f has a horizontal f has a vertical dilation by f has a vertical 1dilation by
of k units translation of -h units a factor of ∣a∣units a factor of b units
​ ​

H(horizontal)I(inside)V(vertical)O(outside)
any transformations that affect the x values will do the opposite of what it looks like to
the x values
any transformations that affect the y values will do exactly what it looks like to the y
values
1.13 - Function Model Selection and Assumption Articulation
Determining a function based on a data table
If over equal-length input values (ex. 1,2,3 or 2,4,6), the output values have a common
first difference, the table is a linear function
If over equal-length input values, the output values have a common second difference,
the table is a quadratic function
If over equal-length input values , the output values have a common third difference,
the table is a cubic function
Determining a function based on geometry
Perimeter - linear function
Area - quadratic function
 Volume - cubic function
Restricted Domain and Range
domain will be the furthest x value that fits the context of the model
range will be the maximum and minimum y value that fits the context of the model
Piecewise Functions
a function whose domain is partitioned into several intervals
Inversely Proportional
when one variable increases the other decreases, and vice versa
1.14 - Function Model Construction and Application
Building Regressions Models on the Graphing Calculator
1. Press “stat” and select “edit”
2. enter the data into lists with L1 = x and L2 = y
3. In the “stat” arrow to the “CALC” menu
4. Enter the desired regression model
to Store RegEQ; enter Y1 (press “alpha” and then “trace”)
Selecting an Appropriate Model Type
Linear Model: roughly constant rates of change
Quadratic Model: roughly linear rates of change or roughly symmetric with a single
maximum/minimum or context involving area
Residuals
Residual = Actual Value - Predicted Value