The International Journal of Bharatiya Knowledge System,

Vol. 2, August 2025,

ISSN(Online): 3048-7315, ISSN(Print): 3107-3727

Sanskrit Literary Tradition: (Re) reading the Canon

Ravi Shankar Kumar1 and Dr. Manish Kumar Gaurav2

Abstract

Sanskrit literature is widely acknowledged as one of the oldest, prosperous and

philosophically significant literary traditions in the world. This study elaborates these rich

and enduring literary traditions. It emphasizes its antiquity. It dates back to the Vedic period

and it has evolved naturally throughout time in a variety of forms, including religious hymns,

epics, classical poetry, Drama and prose. This article examines the representation of the four

purushaarthas – dharma (duty), artha (wealth), kama (desire) and moksha (liberation) – as

the core of literary traditions. The analysis encompasses a variety of genres, including sacred

writings, artistic works, and empirical research. Particular emphasis is placed on the period of

secular literature and its various forms, such as Mahakavya (epic poetry), Muktakas (lyric

poetry), Champu kavya (a combination of prose and poetry), and Roopaka (drama). This

genre boasts the rich literary traditions of Sanskrit. Furthermore, the study highlights the

global impact of Sanskrit storytelling and prose, especially through influential works such as

Panchatantra. Further, this paper concludes that Sanskrit literature is not merely an artefact

of history; rather, it represents a vibrant and evolving intellectual tradition that continues to

shape cultural and literary perspectives across generations.

Keywords: Sanskrit Literature, Sanskrit Poetry, Sanskrit Drama, Sanskrit Prose, Sanskrit

Narratives.

1
Ph.D. Research Scholar, Department of English Literature, The English and Foreign Language University,
Regional Campus, Lucknow. Email: [email protected]

2
Assistant Professor, Department of English Literature, The English and Foreign Language University,
Regional Campus, Lucknow. Email: [email protected]
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Vol. 2, August 2025,
ISSN(Online): 3048-7315, ISSN(Print): 3107-3727

Introduction

Sanskrit literature has an antiquity, range and aesthetic excellence which is greater

than that of all other classical literatures taken together. Its importance is supported by

several compelling factors. Primarily, Sanskrit literature is unparalleled in terms of its ancient

origins. No other tradition offers such antiquity. Some scholars in the West believe that

Egyptian literature is the oldest in the world, but even that is only four thousand years old. On

the other hand, there have been much more arguments over the dating of the Rigveda, the

earliest of written Sanskrit texts. Some scholars propose that the Rigveda was composed

several millennia ago. Although such estimates are often considered inflated, one cannot lose

sight of the widely-reported view of Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak. Mathematical and

astronomical calculations allow him to conclude that many hymns of the Rigveda were

composed at least six thousand years ago; Upadhyaya (1972) believes this to be authentic and

many others too. No other literary tradition reaches such antiquity. The literary current that

began with the Rigveda has continued flowing down to the present day. In the case of other

literatures, we often find that they flourish during favourable times but diminish during

adverse circumstances. This interruption is not observed in Sanskrit literature. After the

composition of the Vedic Samhitas, more texts called Brahmanas were written, followed by

Aranyakas and Upanishads. After these, epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata as well as

Puranas were written. Later came the era of classical literature, which included poetry,

drama, prose, and epics, flourishing under the patronage of Indian kings before the medieval

period. In this way, Sanskrit literature has maintained an unbroken tradition for over six

thousand years. Whether evaluated by antiquity or by continuity, its importance is

undeniable.
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Sanskrit literature is renowned for having such extraordinary depth and range,

covering every facet of human life. It mainly deals with four pillar of human life: dharma

(duty), artha (wealth), kama (desire), and moksha (liberation), giving such profound insights

to each of these fields, as Upadhyaya (1972) pointed out in his book. Contrary to the common

belief that Sanskrit literature is purely on religious theme, it in fact covers a broad range of

theme. An epitome of such is Kauṭilya’s Arthāshastra, which is a cornerstone of political and

economic thought in this tradition. This seminal work gives us valuable insights on how the

political systems of ancient India worked. But it is just one brick of the wall of

interdisciplinary literature in Sanskrit. Kāma Sūtra an equally influential work of Vatsyayana,

is concerned with practical aspects of human desire with such insight, which not only

influenced future Sanskrit works but it also contributed to European erotic studies in 19th

century. Besides these seminal works, Sanskrit literature also contributes significantly to

science, astrology, medicine, architecture and zoology. Of course, religious and spiritual

works are in plenty. Since ancient times, scholars have worked diligently with both Preya

Shastras (mundane sciences) and Shreya Shastras (spiritual sciences), which indicates the all-

embracing nature of the literary tradition.

The medium of this great literature is the Sanskrit language, also called Devavani—

the divine speech. It is the consensus of scholars that Sanskrit is the oldest of all cultivated

languages. If any language can claim to be the oldest, it is Sanskrit. The word ‘Sanskrit’ is

compounded from the root kri, combined with the prefix sam, meaning a cultivated or

perfected language. Two major forms of Sanskrit are Vedbhasha and lokbhasha (vernacular

language). These belong to the two major divisions of Sanskrit literature: Vedic (Vedic) and

Laukik (Classical). Vedic literature, in Vedic Sanskrit, comprises the Samhitas, Brahmanas,

Aranyakas, and Upanishads. Laukik literature, in Classical Sanskrit, comprises the

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ISSN(Online): 3048-7315, ISSN(Print): 3107-3727

Ramayana, Mahabharata, and other later secular works. The literary features of these two

forms are quite different; testifying to the development of the language.

The history of Sanskrit literature can be categorized into several distinct periods. The

first is the Shruti period, during which the Vedic Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and

Upanishads were compiled. This is the most ancient and foundational segment of Indian

knowledge. It begins with the Rigveda, the oldest known literary text in the world, followed

by the Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda. The Rigveda contains hymns composed by

visionary sages. The Yajurveda elaborates on rituals in both prose and verse. The Samaveda

focuses on chants used in rituals, while the Atharvaveda provides mantras for health,

protection, and daily life. To interpret the Vedic hymns, Brahmanas were written, offering

explanations of rituals and including societal narratives. The Aranyakas and Upanishads

delve into philosophical inquiry, emphasizing spiritual wisdom. The Upanishads, in

particular, discuss the soul, the divine, and the path to lasting happiness. These texts form the

cornerstone of Indian philosophy and religious ideology. The second period is the Smriti

period, characterized by the composition of epics like the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and the

Puranas. These texts are often termed Upajeevya Kavya, meaning they serve as foundational

inspirations for subsequent literary creations. They offer themes, structural templates, and

stylistic elements upon which future writers built their works. The third period marks the

phase when the Sanskrit language underwent significant refinement through Panini’s

grammatical rules. It is in this time that literary productions became more structured and

polished, especially in secular genres. This phase can broadly be referred to as the ‘period of

secular Sanskrit’ (Upadhyaya 1972).

Discussing all three periods in depth is beyond the scope of this paper. Therefore,

after providing a brief overview of the Upajeevya Kavya, this study will focus primarily on
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the third period—the period of secular Sanskrit. It will explore the evolution and defining

attributes of its major literary genres in detail.

Genre of Sanskrit Literature

Kapil Dvivedi (2021) in his book History of Vedic Literature, states that the origin of

Sanskrit literature runs deep in the Vedas, and more specifically in the Rigveda, where there

is a rich occurrence of Aakhyana (narratives) and Samvad-sukta (dialogues). These narrative

elements are not historical accounts but are often created as figurative accounts to convey

profound philosophical, spiritual, or moral concepts. This didactic narrative trend paved the

way for subsequent genres such as epics, poetry, and drama. The Rigveda’s story seeds later

flowered into the majestic literary forms of the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and the Puranas.

Sanskrit literary tradition, therefore, might be classified into two broad categories: Drshya

Kavya (visual literature, or Rupka) and Shravya Kavya (audible literature, or poetry and

epics), discussed in Baldev Upadhyaya’s book, Sanskrit Sahitya ka Sankshipt itihas (1972).

The dramatic genre, Rupaka, reached a high level of sophistication, with Natyashastra

enumerating ten significant forms, the most significant of these being Natak (drama). Apart

from Natak, others are Prakaran, Bhaan, Vyog, Ank, etc. Bharatmuni emphasized that

Natyaveda, ‘the fifth Veda’, was composed from elements of all four Vedas: text from

Rigveda, music from Samaveda, acting from Yajurveda, and emotion (rasa) from

Atharvaveda, “जग्राह पाठ् यमृग्वेदात् सामभ्यो गीतमेव च । यजुवेदादभिनयान् रसानाथवव णादभप ।।”

(Natyashastra 1.17). This integrative view is echoed by both Indian aestheticians and Western

scholars like Max Muller and Sylvain Levi, who recognize Vedic dialogues as the origin of

Sanskrit drama.
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Shravya Kavya, or audible literature, includes Mahakavyas (epics), Khandakavyas

(short epics), and Muktakas (independent lyrical verses). The epics, especially the Ramayana

and the Mahabharata, bear witness to poetic, ethical and narrative sophistication. The

aesthetic debates about what is kavya - from Visvanatha Kaviraja’s rasa-centric approach to

Panditaraj Jagannatha’s focus on semantic appeal - testify to the sophistication of Sanskrit

poetic theory. The genre splits further into gadya (prose), padya (verse), and champu (a blend

of the two), which attests to the resourceful expressiveness of Sanskrit epics. The evolution of

prose fiction, even though fewer in number than verse, became the norm with authors such as

Banabhatta, whose Kadambari is a seminal instance of complex, compound-rich classical

prose. The earliest glimpses of prose in Sanskrit literature can be traced back to Vedic texts.

Especially, the Krishna Yajurveda and Brahmana compositions employ prose to serve both

ritualistic and explanatory purposes. Accounts of Panchatantra and Brihatkatha stories prove

that storytelling was not a Western discovery, but a native Indian contribution to world

literature (Upadhyaya 1972), with deep roots in indigenous literary and oral tradition.

In addition to various genres of literature and poetics, there is also a diverse tradition

of non-fictional texts in Sanskrit. And there are also scientific, philosophical and utilitarian

texts which show the intellectual wealth of ancient India. Vātsyāyana’s Kāma Sūtra, which

deals with human erotic desires, is considered an oldest treatise on erotic science, whereas the

Arthaśāstra by Kauṭilya is a veritable model of socio-political and ethical thinking. These

texts stand witness to the richness and variety of non-fiction in Sanskrit. In science and

astronomy, the works of writers such as Varahamihira and Aryabhata testify to serious

attention to empirical observation and theoretical speculation. Such non-fictional writing not

only testifies to the utilitarian intention of Sanskrit writing but also makes it a vehicle for the

expression of the entire range of human life: emotional, intellectual, and practical. Sanskrit
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literature thus never exists at all as monolith but as a dynamic, multi-generic tradition,

ranging from emotive lyricism and epic grandeur to logical prose and scientific inquiry.

Differences between Vedic and Laukik Sanskrit Literature

The differences between Vedic and Laukik (secular) Sanskrit literature are indicated

in their subject matter, language, form, and essence. Vedic literature is primarily religious.

These religious works focus on rituals and hymns performed to praise the gods during the

Vedic period. Laukik literature is on the other hand more people-centric, dealing with all the

Purusharthas (goals of life) with a focus on values and morality, everyday worldly desires,

and a wider concept of religion. It introduces newer deities like Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva,

replacing the earlier dominance of Vedic gods. Vedic literature placed great emphasis on

prose, as can be seen in works such as the Taittiriya and Kathaka Samhita. In contrast,

secular literature saw a decline in prose beauty and a rise in poetic expressions. Additionally,

scientific subjects such as medicine and astrology were often expressed through verse. This

change led to the use of a variety of metrical forms that were not only different from the

Vedic metrical forms but also had the sophisticated grammatical structure established by

Panini. Vedic texts utilize symbolic metaphors to express abstract concepts, whereas secular

works focus on emotional depth and embellishment, as vividly illustrated in Puranic

storytelling. The poetic beauty, emotional resonance, and nature-inspired imagery found in

Laukik literature—especially in the writings of Kalidasa and Bhavabhuti—highlight a vibrant

cultural and literary evolution. This transition marks a movement from the ritualistic

solemnity of Vedic times to the rich aesthetics of classical Sanskrit.

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Upjivya Kavya: Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Purana

Upjivya is a Sanskrit term that refers to a base or source. This idea also suggests that

there are organic founding works that become the foundation of later literature. It consists of

those writings that inspire future writers, emphasizing the strong links and influences

between different works. Especially, the Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Puranas are the

best examples of Upjivya Kavya, which have had a great impact on the Sanskrit literature

from time immemorial.

Ramayana is the adi-kavya of Maharshi Valmiki, which is considered the first epic of

Sanskrit literature. Written approximately in 500 BCE (Dvivedi 2021), it is a work of great

literary, moral, and historical significance. The story is about the ideal life of Rama and

illustrates ideal Indian culture and values. Although the oldest epic, it boasts of astounding

poetry skills. It blends simplicity with grandeur, rich with rasa, similes, and metaphors.

Valmiki’s portrayal of his character and his distinctive writing style are truly one-of-a-kind.

As Dr. Shantikumar Vyas notes, “In Ramayana, there is much more seriousness of language,

audibility of rhymes and maturity of rasa than in Homer, Virgil and Milton” (qtd. in Simhal

1961). Inspired by this epic, many Sanskrit dramatists and poets have created works, among

them some of important are: Pratima Natak (Bhasa), Raghuvansha (Kalidas),

Uttararamacharita (Bhavabhuti), Ravana Vadha (Bhatti), Ramayana manjari (Ksemendra),

and others.

Similarly, the Mahabharata, composed by Vyasa, consider as Historical Kavya

extends beyond the History of the Kauravas and Pandavas to present a complete vision of

ancient Indian civilization and religious philosophy. The Mahabharata evolved in three

phases over time. It started as the Jaya, which had 8,800 verses. Then it expanded into the
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Bharata with 24,000 verses and ultimately transformed into the Mahabharata, with 100,000

verses. Over two centuries, from 500 B.C. to 600 B.C. (Dvivedi 2021), new tales, dialogues,

and philosophical concepts were continually added. Often referred to as the fifth Veda, this

collection includes the Bhagavad Gita, Vishnu Sahasranama, and Anugita, As Vyasa

famously said, “What is not here is nowhere” (qtd. Upadhyaya 1972). The epic has

influenced several works through time, among them some of important are: Karnabhar

(Bhasa), Abhijnana Shakuntalam (Kalidasa), Kiratarjuniya (Bharavi), Naishadhiya Charita

(Sriharsha), Sishupala Vadha (Magha), and others.

Moreover, Puranas also hold a foundational place in Indian literature and spirituality,

following the Vedas in significance. They played a crucial role in preserving and spreading

Indian civilization, religion, and ethical values among the masses. Rich in myth, theology,

and history, the Puranas explore diverse themes—cosmology, genealogies, kings, gods,

rituals, and social customs. They combine philosophy with engaging stories, promoting

devotion (bhakti), truth, and dharma. There are 18 Puranas, along with several sub-Puranas,

were composed from the early centuries up until the 5th century (Simhal 1961). They remain

a vital source of cultural and historical knowledge, revered for both their moral teachings and

religious depth. These works preserve traditions and promote moral values across

generations.

These Upjivya Kavya have transcended Sanskrit to influence Hindi literature, such as

Saket (Maithilisaran Gupta), Rashmirathi (Ramdhari Singh Dinkar) and many more, Bengali

literature, such as Draupadi (Mahasweta Devi), and Indian English literature, which has

particular genre ‘Mythological fiction’ based on Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Purana.

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The Aesthetic Spectrum of Sanskrit poetry

Sanskrit poetry is a reflection of India’s rich and ancient heritage. It reflects the

region’s profound culture, philosophical and aesthetic consciousness. It is traditionally

classified into various poetic forms, each with its own structure, purpose, and beauty. Among

these, three prominent genres stand out—Mahakavya (epic poetry), Giti Kāvyas or Muktakas

(lyrical poetry), and Champu Kavyas (mixed prose-poetry). Together, they showcase the

literary brilliance of Sanskrit poets across centuries, from heroic sagas to delicate lyrical

expressions and intricate narrative styles.

The Mahakavya or Sanskrit epic occupies a unique place in Indian literature. It is not

only a narrative form rather also a cultural and philosophical expression of life. It presents a

holistic view of life. This all-encompassing nature is one of the epic’s most defining traits—

combining mythology, history, philosophy, and aesthetics into a unified poetic vision. Unlike

short poetic forms or dramatic compositions, the mahakavya weaves intricate narratives

across multiple cantos (generally eight or more), and its protagonists are often heroic figures

of noble lineage, embodying lofty ideals, moral values, and threaded through with rich rasa

(aesthetic emotion) like sringara (erotic), vira (heroic), and santa (tranquil). Bhamaha, one of

the earliest literary critics and the first to discuss the presence of rasa in poetry, described the

mahakavya in his work as follows:

That is, epic is Canto-structured, representative of the great (subject) and is great. It

should have incomprehensible words, beautiful meaning, ornamentation and good

content. It should contain mantras, messenger incidents, war, emergence of a hero and

five treaties. It should not be very explainable, it should be sublime. (Simhal 1961)
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Dandin reiterated this structural and emotional framework in Kavyadarsa. He

emphasized the importance of starting with a benediction and incorporating vivid natural and

social descriptions such as cities, oceans, forests, seasons, and festivals. Vishwanatha in

Sahityadarpaṇa provided perhaps the most systematic model, insisting that:

Mahakavya is an epic bound by cantos, centered on a heroic figure—divine or noble.

It features one primary rasa among Sringara, Vira, or Santa, includes all dramatic

elements, and conveys a historical or noble tale. It begins with invocation and spans

over eight metrically-structured, moderately-sized cantos. It should aim for one

spiritual goal—dharma, artha, kama, or moksa. (Simhal 1961)

Beyond plot and heroism, the mahakavya must inspire the reader both aesthetically

and ethically. There has been a lot of debate in Sanskrit literature regarding rasa. But despite

all this, rasa has been accepted as the soul of poetry. According to Sanskrit literature-scholar,

only one rasa should be predominant in the epic and that too should be any one of Shringar,

Veer and Shant.

Valmiki’s Ramayana is always considering as the earliest known epic in Sanskrit

literature and set the standard for later epic poets. The concept of the epic itself originates

from Valmiki. Although early secular epics are lost, Panini’s Jambavati Vijay survives only

in parts, the tradition continued with Kalidasa, Ashvaghosha, Bharavi, Bhatti, Kumardasa,

Magha, Ratnakar, Harichandra, and Shriharsha. While Mahakavyas present life in its grand

and heroic dimensions, Giti Kavyas or Muktakas capture the intimate and emotional aspects

of human experience in brief, melodic verses.

Giti Kavyas or Muktakas (lyrical poetry), in Sanskrit poetry, are lyrical jewels that

express profound emotions in compact poetic forms. It classified into two main types: secular
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(laukika) and religious (stotra). While religious Muktakas are devotional hymns praising

deities, In Secular Muktakas, the grace and sensual beauty of women are depicted with rare

elegance, often reflecting complex emotions of love, longing, and intimacy. Far from mere

sensuality, these verses embody deep artistic and philosophical essence, as critics Rudrat

rightly argue, that By studying these Giti poems, we experience the sublime purity of a

woman’s love and the vivid interplay between outer nature and inner emotion, where nature

enhances moments of love with joy and deepens the pain of separation, resembling a moving

picture that captures real emotions and beauty (Upadhyaya 1972). Giti Kavya is the most

beautiful part of Sanskrit literature. Many poets like Kalidas, Bhartrihari, Amaruk, Bilhan,

Govardhanacharya, Jaidev, and Pandit Raj Jagannath etc. have presented beautiful poetic

texts like Meghdoot, Shringar-Shatak, and Nitishatak. These lyrical expressions remain

unmatched in their poetic charm and philosophical depth.

Lastly, Champu Kavya is a unique form of Sanskrit Poetry. It blends prose and poetry,

much like a song accompanied by musical instruments. In this style, prose is used for detailed

narration, while verse highlights key emotions or ideas. Though its roots are older, the

earliest known Champu work is Nala-Champu by Trivikram Bhatt from the 10th century,

which beautifully narrates the story of Nala and Damayanti. Another major contribution is

Yashastilak Champu by Jain poet Somdev Suri, combining philosophical depth with narrative

elegance. These works hold significance not only in literature but also in philosophy and

historical understanding.

Aesthetic Depth of Sanskrit Drama

Sanskrit drama is a vibrant artistic tradition that explores life through a unique blend

of poetry and visual expression. It is often called visual poetry or Roopak, different from
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written poetry that relies solely on words; drama is brought to life through acting. This

performance builds a bond between the actor and their character, as well as connecting the

character to old legends, which ultimately ties the actor to the audience. Beyond just

entertainment, its purpose is to educate, inspire emotions, and reflect societal values. Sanskrit

drama originated in the Vedic period, evolving from rituals known as yajnas into a refined art

form referred to as Natyaveda, which is detailed in the Natyashastra (Upadhyaya 1972).

Drama in Sanskrit literature is inclusive; Bharat has called drama as Sarvarvanak Veda.

Because other Vedas are mainly centred to the Brahmins, but drama is centred to every Varna

(Upadhyaya 1972). It integrates elements from all arts: music, dance, dialogue, and visual

storytelling. It is the pioneers such as Kalidasa and Ashwaghosh and others who decorated

this heritage, and made drama a strong reflection of emotional and moral creed of life.

Naṭyasastra by Bharatamuni is the earliest extant work of dramaturgy in Sanskrit

literature. The work is a key reference for the practice of drama, and provides detailed

guidance on theatrical structure, for which a theatre should be square, with a rectangular or

triangular stage. It also specifies appropriate occasions for staging plays, such as lunar

festivals (Chandra Adhyaya), coronations, public celebrations, religious ceremonies,

marriages, childbirth, reunions, housewarmings, or the victory of a city (Simhal 1961).

Furthermore, the Naṭyasastra outlines which scenes are suitable for performance and which

should be avoided. It prohibits the direct portrayal of overly distressing or inappropriate

events on stage, such as death, murder, war, marriage rituals, eating, or intimate acts like

kissing, emphasizing a balance between emotional impact and decorum.

Sanskrit plays stand apart from Western, especially Greek drama, through their

consistent use of happy endings. Even when sorrowful events occur, the conclusion is always

joyful, reflecting the optimistic outlook of Indian philosophy rooted in the Vedic concept of
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Rita, or cosmic order (Upadhyaya 1972). This approach aligns with the Elizabethan

tragicomedy, which, as Dryden claimed, best represents human nature: “A play ought to be a

just and lively image of human nature... for the delight and instruction of mankind” (An

Essay of Dramatic Poesy, 1668). While Greek plays often adhere to Aristotle’s unities of

time, place, and action, Sanskrit plays allow flexibility in both setting and timeline, Uttara

Ramacharita, for example, includes a twelve-year gap between acts. This narrative freedom

also considered as a valued feature of Elizabethan drama as well. The mix of languages,

where heroes and upper-class characters used Sanskrit, but women and lower-class male

characters used Prakrit (Upadhyaya 1972), mirrors the real linguistic fabric of society. A

unique feature of Sanskrit drama is the Vidusaka, or clown, who is not merely a source of

humour but the hero’s close friend, offering both comic relief and essential narrative support.

Though often compared to the Elizabethan Fool, the distinction is clear. The Elizabethan Fool

is often a servant or jester from lower social class who uses wit and irony to critique society

and reveal deeper truths, masking wisdom beneath humour. In contrast, the Vidusaka, usually

a Brahmin, combines playful exaggerated humour with an intellectual role rooted in cultural

tradition, and assisting the hero, especially in romantic pursuits. Their functions reflect

broader cultural values: social critique in the West, versus learned companions in Sanskrit

drama. Another key aspect of Sanskrit drama is its theoretical basis in Rasa, which refers to

the aesthetic essence central to Sanskrit literature. Unlike simply focusing on realism or

historical detail, Sanskrit drama aims to touch the emotional core of the audience. This

emotional connection creates Rasa (Naṭyasastra Ch. 6). Rasa arises from the interplay of

Vibhava (the cause), Anubhav (the effect), Vyabhicaribhava (temporary emotions), and a

deep artistic impact, summed up in the phrase “भविावानुिावव्यभिचारी संयोगाद्रसभनष्पभि”

(Naṭyasastra Ch.6). This theory is closely related to T.S. Eliot’s notion of the ‘objective

correlative,’ or a set of objects, a situation, or a chain of events in which an emotion can be

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invested. Eliot famously labelled Hamlet ‘an artistic failure’ because it demonstrates the

dearth of an objective correlative that is sufficient, drawing our attention again to the Western

predicament concerning the expression of attitudes in the theatre. Sanskrit drama, through its

careful and considered advancement of the Rasa theory, creates what Eliot recognized as

unavoidable: an outcome that is emotionally enriching and artistically harmonious. Thus, the

beauty of Sanskrit drama lies not only in its poetic elegance and philosophical depth but also

in its mastery of emotional resonance, making it a timeless expression of the human

experience.

Sanskrit drama encompasses several unique forms, each serving distinct literary and

cultural functions. Natika blends historical figures with imagined romantic episodes, as seen

in Ratnavali and Priyadarsika by Harshavardhana, portraying kings like Arjunavarma in

fantastical yet rooted plots. These plays preserve royal history while entertaining with

imagination. In contrast, Prakaraṇa features entirely fictional socially grounded narratives

focused on middle-class life, where the hero is a composed Brahmin or Vaishya (merchant)

and the themes revolve around love and everyday ethics; classics include Mṛcchakaṭika by

Shudraka, and Malati Madhava by Bhavabhuti. Bhaṇa is a monologue-style one-act play

cantered on a witty character, often a cunning or brave, engaging in imagined dialogues; early

examples like the Chatura-Bhaṇi, attributed to Varruchi and Isvaradatta. Meanwhile,

Prahasana, a comedy or farce has special place in Sanskrit drama. Medieval Prahasana may

have contained some vulgarity, but ancient Prahasana is a source of pure humour from a

poetic point of view and is far from the shadow of vulgarity. In this ancient comedy, the

views of Charvaka, Jain, Buddhist, Shaiva, who did not believe in Vedic religion have been

ridiculed. These dramatic forms: Natika, Prakaraṇa, Bhaṇa, and Prahasana, along with

Vyog, Veethi, ank and other eighteen types as mentioned in Natyashastra, together illustrate
 The International Journal of Bharatiya Knowledge System,
Vol. 2, August 2025,
ISSN(Online): 3048-7315, ISSN(Print): 3107-3727

the richness and versatility of Sanskrit drama, balancing historical grandeur, social realism,

wit, and critique within a deeply Indian aesthetic tradition.

Indian Contribution to World: Prose and Story

The origin of Sanskrit prose is important. It represents a foundational chapter in the

history of world literature. Its earliest forms are found the Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. The

prose there was simple, Unembellished, and functional. This early phase evolved in the

Brahmana texts, where prose was used to narrate religious and philosophical ideas through

stories that were didactic and clear in language. A more refined stage of prose is evident in

the Upanishads, which skilfully combined prose and verse to express complex metaphysical

ideas with emotional depth and simplicity. The Sutras may be short and sometimes tough to

interpret, yet they reflect a singular writing style that values clarity and conciseness. It often

requires interpretive commentaries. Secular Sanskrit prose made notable advancement

through works such as: Mahabharata, Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Patanjali’s Mahabhashya,

and several inscriptions. It reflects use of prose expression for governance, philosophy, and

poetic creation. This literary mode of expression further matured in prose-poetry, especially

in the literary achievements of Subandhu’s Vasavadatta, Bana’s Harshacharita and

Kadambari, and Dandi’s Dashakumaracharita. They are all instances of sophisticated

rhetoric, vivid imagery, and emotional expression (Simhal 1961). Compactness is a hallmark

of Sanskrit prose, which is mostly attained by the extensive usage of compound words

(samāsas). It made it possible to express dense and emotionally potent ideas deeply and

powerfully (Upadhyaya 1972). Sanskrit prose literature is valuable and expressive, but it’s

not very easy to access due to historical losses and the challenges of writing prose compared

to poetry. Sanskrit prose is an important part of Indian literature. It expresses deep

philosophical ideas and aesthetic beauty.

 The International Journal of Bharatiya Knowledge System,
Vol. 2, August 2025,
ISSN(Online): 3048-7315, ISSN(Print): 3107-3727

Sanskrit stories (katha), such as Panchatantra, have been essential to the development

of storytelling around the world. Baldev Upadhyaya (1972) in his book Sanskrit Sahitya ka

Sankshipt itihas, states that Far from being a Western innovation, the narrative tradition

originated in ancient India. Sanskrit was the medium through which timeless stories of

strategy, wisdom, and morality were transmitted. The Panchatantra, which originated from

the earlier Brihat-Katha and Tantrakhyika, is one of India’s most important contributions to

world literature. In sixth century when India and Persia had close relation, these stories

reached Persia through Burzoy’s translation into Pahlavi. Later, just after fifty years, a

Christian priest translated it from Pahlavi to Syrian language, under the name of ‘Kalilag’ and

Damnag’. Further, it was translated in from Syriac to Arabic in 750 Ad by a Muslim scholar

named Abdullah Almukkaffa. Abdullah Bin Hawaji was another scholar who translated this

story from Pahlavi to Arabic in the same year. Before the end of sixteenth century, it was

translated in several European languages such as Greek, Latin, English, German, Spanish and

French (214–215). These are the stories that worked as foundation of famous collection of

Greek stories ‘Stories of Jesus’ and Arabia’s ‘Arabian Nights’. Many cultures find resonance

in these stories’ themes, which have influenced medieval Christian literature and even

become ingrained in religious mythos. For example, in European stories, the Bodhisattva is

transformed into “Saint Joseph” (215). This is about the spread of Indian stories in the

western world. However, these stories had reached east of India even before this century.

Many of Indian stories were translated in Chinese language in 668 AD in two encyclopaedias

of Chinese language. These cross-cultural adaptations highlight the deep impact of Indian

narrative tradition on global literature; establish Sanskrit story literature as a cornerstone of

the world’s shared storytelling heritage.

`Conclusion
 The International Journal of Bharatiya Knowledge System,
Vol. 2, August 2025,
ISSN(Online): 3048-7315, ISSN(Print): 3107-3727

The conclusion is that Sanskrit literature is one of the oldest and most enduring

literary traditions in human history. Its origins are linked to the Rigveda and its continuity is

unmatched. It reflects the rich cultural and spiritual development of India. Sanskrit literature

has a lasting influence on the world. While many literary traditions have faded due to time or

political upheaval, Sanskrit literature has thrived for over six thousand years. It encompasses

a diverse legacy that includes sacred hymns, epic tales, philosophical discussions, political

writings, scientific documents, and lyrical poetry.

The soul of this rich tradition is a vibrant and inclusive literary culture. This culture

explores all four Purusharthas—Dharma (duty), Artha (wealth), Kama (desire), and Moksha

(salvation)—while also embracing a wide range of genres. These include religious texts,

dramatic works, political manuals, erotic literature, and scientific writings. Rather than being

limited to strict religious teachings, Sanskrit literature seeks a comprehensive understanding

of human life. Sanskrit literature blends the material world with the spiritual world and

merges the aesthetic with the intellectual.

Although it is not explicitly discussed, it is important to acknowledge that Sanskrit

literature includes a profound tradition of literary theory referred to as Alankar Shastra. This

exploration helps in understanding aesthetic and emotional qualities of literature. This

journey began with Bharata’s Natyasastra and was influenced by the thinkers such as

Bhamaha, Anandavardhana, Abhinavagupta and Mammat. Their concepts extend beyond

mere writing techniques to fundamental ideas such as Rasa (aesthetic feelings), Dhvani

(Suggestive meaning), Vakrokti (oblique expression) and Guna (stylistic quality). It enhances

our understanding of literary art, allowing us to recognise its profound impact on individual’s

emotions and experiences. These theories represent some of the earliest and most advanced

studies of literary aesthetics found around the world.

 The International Journal of Bharatiya Knowledge System,
Vol. 2, August 2025,
ISSN(Online): 3048-7315, ISSN(Print): 3107-3727

Thus, this study concludes that Sanskrit literature is not merely an artefact of the past;

it represents a living intellectual tradition. This tradition is marked by rich theoretical

insights, artistic creativity, and a welcoming embrace of diverse cultures. Its continuous

history and significant impact on poetic theory highlight its lasting importance in influencing

literary thought both in India and around the world. This tradition has not only safeguarded

knowledge but also continually reshaped our understanding of beauty, expression, and

meaning in literature.
 The International Journal of Bharatiya Knowledge System,
Vol. 2, August 2025,
ISSN(Online): 3048-7315, ISSN(Print): 3107-3727

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