2nd Semester 3rd Semester

1st Semester
Professional English II Discrete Mathematics
Professional English I
Statistics and Numerical
Methods Digital Principles and
Matrices and Calculus
Computer Organization
Engineering Graphics
Engineering Physics
Foundation of Data
Physics for Information
Science
Engineering Chemistry Science

Basic Electrical and Data Structure

Problem Solving and Electronics Engineering
Python Programming Object Oriented
Programming in C
Programming

4th Semester 5th Semester 6th Semester

Theory of Computation Computer Networks Object Oriented Software
Engineering
Artificial Intelligence Compiler Design
and Machine Learning Embedded Systems IoT
Cryptography and
Database Management Cyber Security Open Elective I
System
Professional Elective III
Algorithms Distributed
Professional Elective IV
Computing Professional Professional Elective V
Introduction to Operating
Systems
Elective I Professional Professional Elective VI
Environmental Sciences
and sustainability Elective
MandatoryII Course I Mandatory Course II

7th Semester 8th Semester

Human Values and Ethics Project Work/Internship

Elective-Management

Professional Elective II

Professional Elective III

Professional Elective IV
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

UNIT 1

RELATIONAL DATABASES

Purpose of Database System – Views of data – Data Models – Database System

Architecture – Introduction to relational databases – Relational Model – Keys –

Relational Algebra – SQL fundamentals – Advanced SQL features – Embedded

SQL– Dynamic SQL

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 1
 www.Poriyaa
n.in
CS8492 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

UNIT - 1

INTRODUCTION TO DBMS

INTRODUCTION

Data

Data is a raw material. It can be any character, word, number, date etc.

Example: 5, 27-11-2018, Nagercoil, Sherill

Database

Database is a collection of inter-related data which is used to retrieve, insert and delete
the data efficiently. For example, consider employee database consists of following columns-
eno, ename and salary.

Fig. 1.1 Example of Database

DBMS

A database-management system (DBMS) is a collection of interrelated data and

a set of programs to access those data.
The goal of a DBMS is to provide a way to store and retrieve database information that is
both convenient and efficient.
Example:
MySQL, Oracle, SQL Server, IBM DB2, PostgreSQL

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.poriyaan.poriyaan 2
DEPT. OF
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

PURPOSE OF DATABASE SYSTEMS

. The typical file-processing system is supported by a conventional operating

system. The system stores permanent records in various files, and it needs different application
programs to extract records from, and add records to, the appropriate files. Before database
management systems (DBMS) came along, organizations usually stored information in such
systems.

Disadvantages of File Systems Over Database Systems

1. Data Redundancy:

Data redundancy and inconsistency. Since different programmers create the files and
application programs over a long period,the same information may be duplicated in different
files.This leads to data redundancy .
Example: A student is having record in college office and in computer department. Then his ,
telephone number, address will be same in both the departments. This redundancy leads to higher
storage and access cost.
In addition,it may lead to data inconsistency, that is, the various copies of the same data may no
longer agree.
Example :A changed student address may be reflected in the computer department records but
not in the college office.
2. Difficulty in Accessing Data: Accessing data is not convenient and efficient in file
conventional processing system. More responsive data-retrieval systems are required for general
use.
Example: one of the bank officers needs to find out the names of all customers who live within
a particular postal- code area. If there is no application program for this means, the officer has 2
alternatives: 1. Preparing the list manually from the list of all customers. 2. Ask system
programmer to write the necessary application programs.

3. .Data isolation. Because data are scattered in various files, and files may be in different
formats, writing new application programs to retrieve the appropriate data is difficult.

4. Integrity Problems: The data values stored in the database must satisfy certain types of
consistency constraints.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 3
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

Example: Suppose the university maintains an account for each department, and records the
balance amount in each ac-count. Suppose also that the university requires that the account
balance of a department may never fall below zero. However, when new constraints are added, it
is difficult to change the programs to enforce them.

6. Atomicity Problems: Any operation on database must be atomic, (i.e.) it must happen
in its entirely or not at all.

Example: If you are buying a ticket from railway and you are in the process of money
transaction. Suddenly, your internet got disconnected then you may or may not have paid for the
ticket. If you have paid, then your ticket will be booked and if not then you will not be charged
anything. That is called consistent state, means you have paid or not.

7. Concurrent Access Anomalies: Multiple users are allowed to access data

simultaneously, this is for the sake of better performance and faster response.

Example: Consider an operation to debit (withdrawal) an account. The program reads the old
balance, calculates the new balance, and writes new balance back to database. Suppose an
account has a balance of Rs. 5000. Now, a concurrent withdrawal of Rs. 1000 and Rs. 2000 may
leave the balance Rs. 4000 or Rs. 3000 depending upon their completion time rather than the
correct value of Rs. 2000.

8. Security Problems: Database should be accessible to users in limited way. Not every user
of the database system should be able to access all the data.

Example : In a university, payroll personnel need to see only that part of the database that has
financial information. They do not need access to information about academic records. To
overcome these difficulties, the database management system (DBMS) was developed.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 4
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

VIEWS OF DATA

Data Abstraction

Database systems are made-up of complex data structures. To ease the user interaction
with database, the developers hide internal irrelevant details from users. This process of hiding
irrelevant details from user is called data abstraction.

view
level

view 1 view 2 … view n

Logical Level

Physical Level

Fig. 1.2 Views of Data

Physical level (Internal Level):

❖ This is the lowest level of data abstraction.

❖ It describes how the data are actually stored.
❖ The physical level describes complex low-level data structures in detail.

Logical level (Conceptual Level):

❖ This is the middle level of data abstraction.

❖ The logical schema describes the structure of the whole database.
❖ The logical level describes what data are to be stored in the database and also describes
what relationship exists among those data.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 5
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

❖ Database administrators, who must decide what information to keep in the database, use
the logical level of abstraction.

View level (External Level):

❖ This is the highest level of data abstraction.

❖ It describes only part of the entire database.
❖ The view level of abstraction exists to simplify their interaction with the system
❖ At the external level, a database contains several schemas that sometimes called as
subschema. The subschema is used to describe the different view of the database.

Many high-level programming languages support the notion of a structured type. For
example, we may describe a record as follows:

type instructor = record

ID : char (5);
name : char (20);
dept name : char (20);
salary : numeric (8,2);
end;

This code defines a new record type called instructor with four fields. Each field has a
name and a type associated with it. A university organization may have several such
record types, including
department, with fields dept name, building, and budget
course, with fields course id, title, dept name, and credits
student, with fields ID, name, dept name, and tot cred

At the physical level, an instructor, department, or student record can be described

as a block of consecutive storage locations. The compiler hides this level of detail from
programmers.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 6
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

At the logical level, each such record is described by a type definition, as in the
previous code segment, and the interrelationship of these record types is defined as
well. Programmers using a programming language work at this level of abstraction.
Similarly, database administrators usually work at this level of abstraction.
At the view level, several views of the database are defined, and a database user
sees some or all of these views. In addition to hiding details of the logical level of the
database, the views also provide a security mechanism to prevent users from accessing
certain parts of the database.

SCHEMA AND INSTANCES

Instance:

The collection of information stored in the database at a particular moment is called an

instance of the database. Database schema defines the variable declarations in tables that belong
to a particular database; the value of these variables at a moment of time is called the instance of
that database.

Schema:

The overall design of the database is called the database schema.. Schema is of three
types: Physical schema, logical schema and view schema.

Application programs are said to exhibit physical data independence if they do not
depend on the physical schema, and thus need not be rewritten if the physical schema changes.
DATA MODELS
Introduction

Data Model is a collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships, data
semantics and consistency constraints.

Data Models can be classified into three categories

1. Object-based logical model
2. Record-based logical model

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 7
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

Object-Based Logical Models

It is a collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data relationships and data
constraints. There are various object-based models like,
a. Entity-Relationship Model
b. Object Oriented Model

a. Entity-Relationship Model
❖ The entity-relationship (E-R) data model uses a collection of basic objects, called
entities, and relationships among these objects.
❖ An entity is a “thing” or “object” in the real world that is distinguishable from
other objects. The entity-relationship model is widely used in database design.

b. Object-Oriented Data Model

❖ Object-oriented data model that can be seen as extending the E-R model with
notions of encapsulation, methods , and object identity.
❖ The object-relational data model combines features of the object-oriented data
model and relational data model.

Record Based Logical Models

The record based model describes the data structures and access techniques of a DBMS.
There are three types of record-based models viz.

a) Relational Model
b) Hierarchical Model
c) Network Model
a) Relational Model.
❖ The relational model uses a collection of tables to represent both data and the
relationships among those data.
❖ Each table has multiple columns, and each column has a unique name.
❖ Tables are also known as relations.
❖ The relational model is an example of a record-based model.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 8
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

❖ Record-based models are so named because the database is structured in fixed-

format records of several types.
❖ Each table contains records of a particular type.
❖ Each record type defines a fixed number of fields, or attributes.
❖ The columns of the table correspond to the attributes of the record type.
b) Hierarchical Data Model

In Hierarchical data model,

❖ Organizes the data in a Tree Structure
❖ Hierarchy of parents and child segments
❖ Data is represented by a collection of record types
c) Network Data Model

In Network data model,

❖ Organizes the data in a Graph Structure
❖ Relationships among data are represented by links
❖ Data is represented by a collection of record types
DATABASE SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
Two Tier and Three Tier Architeture

User user
Client

Application application client

Network network

application server
database system

database system
Server

Fig.1.3.(a) Two-tier
architeture (b) Three-tier architecture

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 9
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

The architecture of a database system is greatly influenced by the underlying

computer system on which the database system runs. Database systems can be
centralized, or client-server, where one server machine executes work on behalf of
multiple client machines. Database systems can also be designed to exploit parallel
computer architectures. Distributed databases span multiple geographically separated
machines.

Database applications are usually partitioned into two or three parts, as in Figure
1.1. In a two-tier architecture, the application resides at the client machine, where it
invokes database system functionality at the server machine through query language
statements. Application program interface standards like ODBC and JDBC are used for
interaction between the client and the server.

In contrast, in a three-tier architecture, the client machine acts as merely a front

end and does not contain any direct database calls. Instead, the client end
communicates with an application server, usually through a forms interface.

The application server in turn communicates with a database system to access data.
The business logic of the application, which says what actions to carry out under what
conditions, is embedded in the application server, instead of being distributed across
multiple clients. Three-tier applications are more appropriate for large applications, and
for applications that run on the World Wide Web.
Components of DBMS

The functional components of a database system can be divided into 3 units:

a) Storage Manager
b) Query Processor
c) Database Users and Administrators

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 10
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

a) Storage Manager: It is important because database typically requires a large amount of

storage space. It is a program module that provides an interface between the low level data stored
in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to the system.

The storage manager translates the various DML statements into low level file system
commands. Thus the storage manager is responsible for storing, retrieving and updating the data
in the database.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 11
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

It includes the following components.

(1) Authorization and Integrity Manager: which tests for the satisfaction of integrity
constraints and checks the authority of users to access data.

(2) Transaction Manager: which ensures that the database remains in a consistent
state when the system failures and that concurrent transaction executions
proceed without conflicting.

(3) File Manager: which manages the allocation of storage space on disk and data
structures used to store that information’s.

(4) Buffer Manager: which is responsible for fetching data from disk into main
memory.

Data Structure used by the Storage Manager

❖ Data files, which stores database itself.

❖ Data dictionary, which stores meta data about the structure of the database,
in particular schema of the database.

❖ Indices, which can provide fast access to data items. Hashing technique is
used for accessing.

b) Query Processor

It contains the following components.

DDL Interpreter: which interprets DDL statements (i.e., converts DDL statement
into low level data).

❖ DML Compiler: Which translates DML statements into an low level instructions
that the query evaluation engine understands. Also performs Query optimization.

❖ Query Evaluation Engine: Which executes low level instructions generated by

the DML compiler.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 12
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

c) Database Users

❖ Application programmers: Computer professionals who interact with the system

through DML calls, which are embedded in a program written in a host language (Cobol,
PL/I, Pascal, C).

❖ Sophisticated users: Interact with the system through the database query
language.

❖ Specialized users: Specialized users who write specialized database applications

that do the into the traditional data processing frame work (e.g: CAD system, knowledge
based and expert systems.)

❖ Naive Users: Interact with the system by invoking one of the permanent
applications.

❖ Database Administrator: A person who has such central control over the system
is called a database administrator (DBA).

The functions of a DBA include:

1. Schema definition: The DBA creates the original database schema by

executing a set of data definition statements in the DDL.

2. Storage structure and access-method definition.

3. Schema and physical-organization modification: The DBA carries out

changes to the schema and physical organization to reflect the changing needs
of the organization to improve performance.

4. Granting of authorization for data access: By granting different types of

authorization, the database administrator can regulate which parts of the
database various users can access. The authorization information is kept in a
special system structure that the database system consults whenever someone
attempts to access the data in the system.

5. Routine maintenance: Examples of the database administrator’s routine

maintenance activities are:

✓ Periodically backing up the database

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 13
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

✓ Ensuring that enough free disk space is available for normal operation

✓ Monitoring jobs running on the database

1.6. RELATIONAL MODEL

A relational database management system (RDBMS) is a database management system
based on relational model introduced by E.F.Codd. In relational model, data is represented in
terms of tuples (rows).

In relational database, a table is a collection of data elements organized in terms of rows

and columns. A table is also considered as convenient representation of relations. But a table can
have duplicate tuples while a true relation cannot have duplicate tuples. Table is the simplest
form of data storage. Below is an example of employee table.

Emp id Name Age Salary

1 Baskar 34 13000
2 Dharshan 28 15000
3 Prajan 20 18000
4 Pradeep 42 19020

A single entry in a table is called a record or row. A record in a table represents set of
related data. For example, the above Employee table has 4 record. Following is an example of
single record.
1 Baskar 34 13000

A table consists of several records (row); each record can be broken into several smaller
entities known as fields. The above employee table consists of four fields Emp_id, Name, Age
and Salary.

In relational table, a column is a set of value of a particular type. The term attribute is
also used to represent a column. For example, in Employee table, Name is a column that
represent names of employee.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 14
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

Name
Baskar
Dharshan
Prajan
Pradeep
E. F. Codd’s Rule

These rules were defined by E.F. Codd’s in a paper published in 1985. They specify what a
relational database must support in order to be relational.
Rule 1: The information Rule

“All information in a relational data base is represented explicitly at the logical level and in
exactly one way - by values in tables."

 All information including table names, column names and column data types
should be available in some table with in the database.

 Tables that hold such information constitute the data dictionary.

 Data are represented only one way: as values within columns within rows.

 Simple, consistent and versatile.

 The basic requirement of the relational model.

Rule 2: Guaranteed access Rule

“Each and every datum (atomic value) in a relational data base is guaranteed to be
logically accessible by resorting to a combination of table name, primary key value and column
name."

 Every value can be accessed by providing table name, column name and key.

 All data are uniquely identified and accessible via this identity.

 Most RDBMS do not make the definition of the primary key mandatory and are
deficient to that extent

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 15
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

Rule 3: Systematic treatment of null values

"Null values (distinct from the empty character string or a string of blank characters and
distinct from zero or any other number) are supported in fully relational DBMS for representing
missing information and inapplicable information in a systematic way, independent of data type."
 Separate handling of missing and/or non applicable data.

 This is distinct to zero or empty strings

Rule 4: Dynamic on-line catalog based on the relational model

“The data base description is represented at the logical level in the same way as-ordinary
data, so that authorized users can apply the same relational language to its interrogation as they
apply to the regular data."
 Catalog (data dictionary) can be queried by authorized users as part of the database.

 The catalog is part of the database.

Rule 5: Comprehensive data sub-language Rule

A relational system may support several languages and various modes of terminal use (for
example, the fill-in-the-blanks mode). However, there must be at least one language whose
statements are expressible, per some well-defined syntax, as character strings and that is
comprehensive in supporting all the following items
 Data Definition

 View Definition

 Data Manipulation (Interactive and by program).

 Integrity Constraints

Rule 6: View updating Rule

All views that are theoretically updatable are also updatable by the system.
Rule 7: High-level insert, update and delete

The capability of handling a base relation or a derived relation as a single operand applies
not only to the retrieval of data but also to the insertion, update and deletion of data.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 16
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

Rule 8: Physical data independence

"Application programs and terminal activities remain logically unimpaired whenever any
changes are made in either storage representations or access methods."

Rule 9: Logical data independence

“Application programs and terminal activities remain logically unimpaired when

information-preserving changes of any kind that theoretically permit un-impairment are made to
the base tables."

Changes to the logical level (tables, columns, rows, and so on) must not require a change
to an application based on the structure. Logical data independence is more difficult to achieve
than physical data independence.

Rule 10: Integrity independence

“Integrity constraints specific to a particular relational data base must be definable in the
relational data sub-language and storable in the catalog, not in the application programs."

 Integrity constraints are to be stored in the catalog not the programs.

 Alterations to integrity constraints should not affect application programs.

 This simplifies the programs.

 It is not always possible to do this.

Rule 11: Distribution independence

The data manipulation sub language of an RDBMS must enable application programs and
queries to remain logically unchanged whether & whenever data is physically centralized or
distributed.

Rule 12: The Non-Subversion rule

If the system provides a low-level (record-at-a-time) interface, then that interface cannot
be used to subvert the system, for example, bypassing a relational security or integrity constraint.

All the database access must be controlled through the DBMS so that the integrity of the
database cannot be compromised without the knowledge of the user.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 17
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

KEYS

A key allows us to identify a set of attributes and thus distinguishes entities from each
other. Keys also help to uniquely identify relationships, and thus distinguish relationships from
each other.
Different types of keys are:

 Super key

 Candidate key

 Primary key

 Foreign key

1. Super key: A superkey is a set of one or more attributes that, taken collectively, allow
us to identify uniquely a tuple in the relation. For example, consider the student relation.

Student (Rollno, Name, Age) is a Super key.

2. Candidate key: A table which have more than one attribute that uniquely identify an
instance of an entity set. These attributes are called Candidate keys.
For example, Consider the car relation,
Car (license_no, engine_serial_no, make, model,
year) In this relation, we can find the two Candidate
keys:
license_no and engine_serial_no.
3. Primary key: An attribute which is unique and not null, can identify an instance of the
entity set is termed as Primary key.
For example, Consider the employee relation,
Employee (eno, ename, sex, doj, dob, sal, job, dno) in this eno is the Primary key.
4. Foreign key: An attribute in one relation whose value matches the primary key in some
other relation is called a Foreign key.
For example, Consider the two relations dept and employee,
Dept (dno, dname, dloc)
Employee (eno, ename, sex, doj, dob, sal, job, dno)
In the above relations, for dept relation dno is the primary key, for employee relation eno is the
primary key and here we can find that the employee relation - dno matches with the dept relation
- dno, so that employee relation dno is known as Foreign key.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 18
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

RELATIONAL ALGEBRA

1.6.1 Introduction
Query language is a language in which user requests information from the database.
Categories
(i) Procedural - Eg., - Relational algebra.
(ii) Non-procedural - Eg., - Relational calculus.
(i) Procedural language: The user instructs the system to perform a sequence
of operations on the database to compute the desired result.
Example: Relational algebra.
(ii) Non-procedural language: The user describes the desired information
without giving a specific procedure for obtaining that information.
Example: Relational calculus.
Relational Algebra
• Procedural language.
• It consists of set of operations that take one or more relations as input and produces
new relation as output.
• The operations can be divided into
❖ Basic operations Select, project, union, rename, set difference & cartesian
product.
❖ Additional operations that can be expressed in terms of basic
operations Set intersection, natural join, division and assignment.
❖ Extended operations Aggregate operations and outer join.
Basic Operations
(a) The select operation ( )
It is used to select a subset of the tuples from a relation that satisfy a selection
condition.
Syntax

<Selection Condition> (R)

Example
Select those tuples of the loan relation where the branch is “Perriridge”.

branch-name = “Perriridge” (loan)

The results of branch-name = “Perriridge” (loan)

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 19
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

loan-number branch-name amount

L-15 Perryridge 1500

L-16 Perryridge 1300

(b) The Project Operation ( )

The Project operation, on the otherhand, selects certain columns from the table
and discards the other columns. If we are interested in only certain attributes of a relation,
we use the Project operation to project the relation over these attributes only.

Syntax

<Atrribute list> (R)

Example
List the loan-no,amount from the loan relation.

loan-no, amount (loan)

The results of loan-no, amount (loan)

loan-number amount
L-11 900

L-14 1500

L-15 1500

L-16 1300

L-17 1000

L-23 2000

L-93 500

Composition of relational operations - is the combination of select and project

operation.

Example
Find those customers who live in “Rye”

customer-name ( customer-city = “Rye” (customer))

The results of customer-name ( customer-city = “Rye” (customer))

customer-name
Curry
Smith

(c) The Union Operation ( )

The result of this operation, denoted by R S, is a relation that includes all tuples that are
either in R or in S or in both R and S. Duplicate tuples are eliminated.
Synta
x

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 20
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

R S
Example
Find the names of customers who have either an account or a loan or both.
Names of all customers with a loan is

πcustomer-name (borrower)

Names of all customers with account is

πcustomer-name (depositor)

So the expression needed is πcustomer-name (borrower) U πcustomer-name (depositor)

The result of πcustomer-name (borrower) U πcustomer-name (depositor)

customer-name
Adams

Curry

Hayes

Johnson

Jones

Lindsay

Smith

Turner

Williams

(d) The set difference operation ( )

It is used to find tuples that are in one relation but are not in another.

Syntax

R–S

Example

Find all customers who have an account but not have a

loan. πcustomer-name (depositor) – πcustomer-name (borrower)

The result of πcustomer-name (depositor) – πcustomer-name (borrower)

customer-name

Johnson

Lindsay

Turner

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 21
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

(e) The Cartesian Product Operation (X)

It allows us to combine information from any 2 relations.

Defined as
r s = { tq | t r and q s}

Assume that attributes of r(R) and s(S) are disjoint.

For Example

Relation r
Relation s r s

A B C D E A B C D E

1 10 a 1 10 a
2 10 a 1 10 a
20 b 1 20 b
10 b 1 10 b
2 10 a
2 10 a
2 20 b
2 10 b

(f) The Rename operation: (rho- )

❖ Allow us to name the relational algebra expressions.
❖ Allow us to refer to a relation by more than one

name. Example: X (E) returns the expression E under the

name X. If a relational algebra expression E has arity n, then

X (A1, A2, A3, ..., An) (E)

returns the result of expression E under the name X, and with the attributes
renamed to A1, A2, A3, ..., An.
For example, consider the Book relation with attributes Title, Author,
Year and Price. The rename operator is used on Book relation as follows.

Temp (Bname, Aname, Pyear, Bprice) (Book)

Here both the relation name and the attribute names are
renamed.
(Book)
Temp – Here only the relation name is renamed.

Additional Operations
(g) Set intersection operation ( )
o Notation used is r s.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 22
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

o It is defined as r s = { t / t r and t s}.

o Assume r, s have the same attributes.
o The attributes of r and s are compatible.
o r s = r – (r – s).

Example
Consider relation r, s
r s rs

A B A B A B
2 2 2
2 3
1

(h) Natural Join operation ( )

➢ Notation used is (r s)

➢ Let r and s be relations on scheme R and S respectively. Then r

on schema RUS obtained as follows s is a relation

➢ Consider each pair of tuples tr from r and ts from s.

➢ If tr and ts have the same value on each of the attributes in R and S, add a tuple t
to the result, where
◆ t has the same value as tr on r.
◆ t has the same value as ts on s.

Example
R = (A, B, C, D)
S = (E, B, D)
Result schema = (A, B, C, D,

E) r s is defined as

r s RUS r .A1 s.A1 r.A2 s.A2 ... r.An s.An r s

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 23
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

r
s
A B C D B D E

1 a 1 a
2 a 3 a
4 b 1 a
1 a 2 b
2 b 3 b

r s
A B C D E
1 a
1 a
1 a
1 a
2 b

(i) Division operation (r ÷ s)

➢ Suited to the queries that includes the phrase “for all”.
➢ Let r and s be relations on schema R and S respectively

where R = (A1, A2, A3, ...., Am, B1, B2, B3, , Bn )

S = (B1, B2,....., Bn)

The results of rs is a relation on

schema R – S = (A1, A2, , Am)

r s t / t R S(r) u S(tu r)

For Example:
Relation r, s

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 24
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

r
s rs
A B B A
1 1
2 2
3
1
1
1
3
4
6
1
2
(j) Assignment Operation ( )
• The assignment operation ( ) provides a convenient way to express complex queries.
• Write query as a sequential program consisting of a series of assignments
followed by an expression where value is displayed as a result of the query.
• Assignment must always be made to a temporary relation variable.
Example: Write r ÷ s as

temp 1 RS r

temp 2
RS temp1 S r
result = temp 1 – temp 2
• The result to the right of the is assigned to the relation variable on the left of
the .
• May use variables in subsequent expressions.
Extended Relational-Algebra Operations
Generalized projection
Outer join
Aggregate functions.
(a) Generalized Projection
• Extends the projection operation by allowing arithmetic functions to be used in the
projection list.
(E). E is any Relational algebra expression.
F1,F2 ..., Fn

• Each of F1, F2, ..., Fn are arithmetic expressions involving constants and attributes
in the schema of E.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 25
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

• Given relation credit (customer-name, limit, credit - balance) find how much
more each person can spend:
customer_name , limit_credit_balance (credit)

(b) Aggregate Functions and Operations

• Aggregate function takes a collection of values and returns a single value as a
result.
Avg., min., max., sum, count are few aggregate functions.
• Aggregate operations in Relational algebra is defined as G1, G2, ..., Gn F1(A1),
F2(A2), ..., Fn(Am) (E).
Here E is any relational algebra expression.
G1, G2, ..., Gn is a list of attributes on which to group. Each
Fi is an aggregate function,
Each Ai is an attribute name.
Example

Relation r

A B C
O/P of sum(c) (r)
7
7 sum(c)
3 27
10

(c) Outer Join

➢ An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of information.
➢ Computes the join and then adds tuples from one relation that do not match tuples in
the other relation to the result of the join.
➢ Uses Null Values
(a) Null signifies that the value is unknown or does not exist.
(b) All comparisons involving null are false by definition.
Examples

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 26
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

Inner Join ( )

Left outer join ( )

Right outer join ( )

Full outer join ( )

1.6.2 Modification of the Database

1.8.3.1 Deletion
In relational algebra, a deletion is expressed by
r r–E
where,
r is a relation and
E is a relational algebra query.
Example
Delete all of Smith’s account records.
depositor depositor - = (depositor )
customer.name = “Smith”

Insertion

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 27
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

To insert data into a relation, we either a tuple to be inserted or write a query whose result
is a set of tuples to be inserted.
Insertion is expressed by
R rUE
Where,
r is a relation and
E is a relational-algebra expression.
Example
To insert a fact that Smith has $1200 in account A - 973 at the Perryridge branch.
account account U {(A-973, “Perryridge”, 1200)}
depositor depositor U {(“Smith”; A-973)}

Updation
To change a value in a tuple without changing all values in the tuples, the generalized
projection operator is used.
r F1,F2 … Fn
(r)

where each Fi is either the ith attribute of r, if the ith attribute is not updated, or, if the
attribute is to be updated. Fi is an expression, involving only constants and the attributes of r,
which gives the new value for the attribute.
If we want to select some tuples from r and to update only them, we can use the following
expression; here, p denotes the selection condition that chooses which tuples to update:
R F1,F2 … Fn
( (r))U(r
p
- (r))
p

Example
To illustrate, the use of the update operation, suppose that interest payments are being
made, and that all balances are to be increased by 5 percent.
account (account)
account-number, branch-name, balance * 1.05

Now suppose that accounts with balances over $10,000 receive 6 percent interest,
whereas all others receive 5 percent.
account AN, BN, balance * (
balance>10000
1.06 (account))

U AN, BN, balance * 1.06

( balance 10000
(account))

where the abbreviations AN and BN stand for account-number and branch-name,

respectively.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 28
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

SQL FUNDAMENTALS

Structured Query Language (SQL) is the standard common set used to communicate with
the relational database management systems. All tasks related to relational data management—
creating tables, querying the database for information, modifying the data in the database,
deleting them, granting access to users, and so on — can be done using SQL.

Advantages of SQL

❖ SQL is a high level language that provides a greater degree of abstraction than
procedural languages. It is so fashioned that the programmer can specify what data
is needed but need not specify how to retrieve it. SQL is coded without embedded
data-navigational instructions. This will be taken care of by the DBMS.

❖ SQL enables the end-users and systems personnel to deal with a number of
database management systems where it is available. Increased acceptance and
availability of SQL are also in its favor.

❖ Applications written in SQL can be easily ported across systems. Such porting
could be required when the underlying Database Management System needs to be
upgraded or changed.

❖ SQL as a language is independent of the way it is implemented internally. A query

returns the same result regardless of whether optimizing has been done with
indexes or not. This is because SQL specifies what is required and not how it
should be done.

❖ The language while being simple and easy to learn can handle complex situations.

Parts of SQL

The SQL language has several parts:

❖ Data-definition Language(DDL). The SQL DDL provides commands for

defining relation schemas, deleting relations and modifying relation schemas.

❖ Interactive data-manipulation language (DML). The SQL DML includes a query

language based on both the relational algebra and the tuple relational calculus. It
includes also commands to insert tuples into, delete tuples from, and modify tuples

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 29
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

in the database.

❖ View definition. The SQL DDL includes commands for defining views.

❖ Transaction control. SQL includes commands for specifying the beginning and
ending of transactions.

❖ Embedded SQL and Dynamic SQL. Embedded and dynamic SQL define how
SQL statements can be embedded within general-purpose programming languages,
such as C, C++, Java, PL/I, COBOL, Pascal and Fortran.

❖ Integrity. The SQL DDL includes commands for specifying integrity constraints
that the data stored in the database must satisfy. Updates that violate integrity
constraints are disallowed.

❖ Authorization. The SQL DDL includes commands for specifying access rights to
relations and views.

Domain Types of SQL

The SQL standard supports a variety of built-in domain types, including:

❖ char(n): A fixed-length character string with user-specified length n. The full form,
character can be used instead.

❖ varchar(n): A variable-length character string with user-specified maximum length

n. The full form, character varying, is equivalent.

❖ int: An integer (a finite subset of the integers that is machine dependent). The full
form, integer, is equivalent.

❖ smallint: A small integer (a machine-dependent subset of the integer domain type).

❖ numeric(p,d): A fixed-point number with user-specified precision. The number

consists of p digits (plus a sign), and d of the p digits are to the right of the decimal
point. Thus, numeric(3,1) allows 44.5 to be stored exactly, but neither 444.5 or
0.32 can be stored exactly in a field of this type.

❖ real, double precision: Floating-point and double precision floating-point numbers

with machine-dependent precision.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 30
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

❖ float(n): A floating-point number, with precision of at least n digits.

❖ date: a calender date containing a (four-digit) year, month, and day of the month.

❖ time: the time of day, in hours, minutes and seconds. A variant, time(p), can be
used to specify the number of fractional digits for seconds (the default being 0). It
is also possible to store time zone information along with the time.

❖ timestamp: A combination of date and time. A variant, timestamp(p), can be used

to specify the number of fractional digits for seconds (the default here being 6).

Date and time values can be specified like this:

date ‘2001-01-24’

time ’09:30:00’

timestamp ‘2001-04-25 10:29:01.45’

Dates must be specified in the format year followed by month followed by day, as shown.
The seconds field of time or timestamp can have a fractional part, as in the timestamp above.
We can use an expression of the form cast e as t to convert a character string (or string valued
expression) e to the type t, where t is one of date, time, or timestamp. The string must be in the
appropriate format as illustrated at the beginning of this paragraph.

To extract individual fields of a date or time value d, we can use extract (field
from d), where field can be one of year, month, day, hour, minute or second.

1.9.4. SQL LANGUAGE

Data Definition Language:

It is used to create a table, alter the structure of a table and also drop the table created.
Create Command

It is used to create a table.

Synta
x
create table <table name> (columnname1
datatype(size), columnname2 datatype(size)…);
Example
SQL>create table employee (ename varchar(10), eid number(5), address

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 31
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

varchar2(10), salary number(5), designation varchar2(10));

Alter Command

It is used to add a new column or modify existing column definitions.

Syntax

alter table <tablename> add (new columnname1 datatype(size),

new columnname2 datatype(size)…);

alter table <table name> modify (column definition);

Example

SQL>alter table employee modify(eid number(7));

SQL>alter table employee add (age number(2));

Drop Command

This command is used to delete a table.

Syntax

drop table <tablename>;

Example

SQL>drop table employee;

Notes: This command will delete the contents as well as structure.

Truncate Command

This is used to delete the records but retain the structure.

Syntax

truncate table <tablename>;

Example

SQL>truncate table employee;

To view the table structure

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 32
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

Syntax

desc <tablename>;

Example

SQL>desc employee;

Data Manipulation Language:

Insert Command
It is used to insert a new record in the database.
Syntax
insert into <tablename> values (a list of data values);
Example
SQL>create table employee (ename varchar2(10), eid number (5),
salary number(5));
SQL>insert into employee values(‘ABC’,50,1000);
Update Command

Changes can be made by using update command.

Synta
x
update <tablename> set field=value,…… where <condition>;
Example
SQL>update employee set eid=100 where ename = ‘ABC’;
Delete Command

Rows can be deleted using delete command

Synta
x
delete from <tablename> where <condition>;
Example
SQL>delete from employee where eid=100;

1.9.4.1 Data Control Language:

✓ Used to control privilege in Database.

✓ To perform any operation in the database, such as for creating tables, sequences
or views we need privileges.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 33
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

Grant Command

Gives user access privileges to database.

Syntax

Grant Select/insert/delete/update/alter/all privileges on tablename to authenticate;

Example

Grant select, update on student to vikram;

Revoke Command

Take back permissions from user.

Syntax

Revoke Select/insert/delete/update/alter/all privileges on tablename from authenticate;

Example

Revoke select, update on student from vikram;

Transaction Control Language:

✓ Used to manage transactions in database

✓ To manage the changes made by DML statements.
✓ Allows statements to be grouped together into logical transactions.

Commit command

Commit command is used to permanently save any transaction into database.

Syntax Commit;

Rollback Command

Restores the database to last commited state. It is also use with savepoint command to

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 34
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

jump to a savepoint in a transaction.

Syntax

rollback to savepoint_name;

Example
rollback to Temp;

Savepoint Command

Used to temporarily save a transaction so that you can rollback to that point whenever
necessary.

Syntax

Savepoint savepoint_name;

Example

Savepoint Temp

1.10. ADANCED SQL FEATURES

The structure of an SQL expression consists of three clauses : select, from and where

The select clause corresponds to the projection operation of the relational algebra. It is
used to list the attributes desired in the result of a query.

The from clause corresponds to the Cartesian product operation of the relational algebra.
It lists the relations to be scanned in the evaluation of the expression.
The where clause corresponds to the selection predicate of the relational algebra. It
consists of a predicate involving attributes of the relations that appear in the from clause.
A SQL has the form
select A1,A2, …..An

from r1,r2, ….. rm

where p
Ai - an attribute

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 35
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

ri - relation

p - predicate
The query is equivalent to the relational algebra expression.
A1,A2,….. An ( p (r1 r2 ……. rm))

If the where clause is omitted, the predicate p is true.

Tuple Variables

Tuple variables are defined in the from clause via the use of the as clause.

For example, find the customer names and their loan numbers for all customers having a
loan at some branch in the banking database.

SQL>select B.customer_name, B.loan_no, L.amount

from borrower as B, loan as L where

L. loan_no = B. loan_no;

String Operations

SQL includes a string matching operator for comparisons on character strings. Patterns
are described using 2 special characters.

Percent (%): The % character, matches any substring.

Underscore (-): The-character matches any character.

Example: Find the names of customers where the 1st 2 characters are ‘Ba’.

SQL>select customer_name from customer where

customer_name like ‘Ba%’;

Find the names of customer where the 2nd character is ‘n’ or ‘a’.

SQL>select customer_name from customer where

customer_name like ‘_n%’ or ‘_a%’;

Patterns are case sensitive, i.e., upper case characters do not match lowercase
characters, and vice versa.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 36
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

SQL supports a variety of string operations such as

(a) Concatenation using ‘| |’ or strcat ( )

(b) Converting the string into upper or lower case upper or lower ( )

(c) Find string length (strlen ( )), extracting

substring (substr ( )), etc.

Order by Clause

The order by clause causes the tuples in the result of a query to appear in sorted order.
SQL>select *
from employee
order by salary;
SQL>select *
from employee
order by salary desc, eid asc;

Aggregate Functions

Aggregate functions are functions that take a collection of values as input and return a
single value as output.

SQL offers 5 built in aggregate

funtions: avg - average

value

min - minimum value

max - maximum value

sum - sum of values

count - number of values.

Examples

1. Find the average account balance at the perryridge

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 37
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

branch: SQL>select avg (balance) from

account where

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 38
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

branch-name = “Perryridge”;

2. Find the number of tuples in the customer

relation SQL>select count (*) from

customer;

Aggregate functions with group by clause

Group by clause is used to group the rows based on certain criteria. Group by is used in
conjunction with aggregate functions like sum, avg, min, max, count, etc.

Example: Find the average account balance at each branch.

SQL>select branch_name, avg (balance) from account

group by branch_name;

Aggregate functions with having clause

Find the name of all branches where the average account balance is more than $2,000.

SQL>select branch_name, avg (balance) from account

group by branch_name having avg (balance) > 2000;

Null Values

SQL allows the use of null values to indicate absence of information

about the value of an attribute.

Null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist.

The predicate is null can be used to check for null values.

Example:

Find all loan numbers which appear in the loan relation with null values for amount.

SQL>select loan_no from loan where amount is null;

The result of any arithmetic expression (involving, for example

+, , * or /) is null if any of the input values is null.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 39
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

Example: 5 + null returns null.

Consider the unknown (null) value used in boolean expressions as

1. OR - (unknown or true) = true, (unknown or false) =

unknown (unknown or unknown) = unknown.

2. AND - (true and unknown) = unknown, (false and unknown)

= false, (unknown and unknown) = unknown.

3. NOT - (not unknown) = unknown.

For example, find total of all loan

amounts. SQL>select sum (amount)

from loan;

Above statement ignores all null amounts. The result is null if there is no non-
null amount.

All aggregate operations except count (*) ignore tuples with null values on
the aggregated attributes.

Nested Subqueries

SQL provides a mechanism for the nesting of subqueries. A subquery

is a select-from-where expression that is nested within another query.

A common use of subquery is to perform tests for set membership,

set comparisons and set cardinality.

Set Membership

SQL uses in and not in constructs to set membership tests.

IN

The IN connective tests for set membership, where the set is a collection of values
produced by a select clause.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 40
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

Example: Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the bank.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 41
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

SQL>select distinct customer-name from depositor

where customer-name in (select customer-name from borrower);

NOT IN

The not in connective tests for the absence of set membership.

Example: Find all customers who have a loan at the bank but do not have an account at the
bank.

SQL>select distinct customer-name from borrower

where customer-name not in (select customer name from depositor);

2. Set Comparison

Nested queries are used to compare sets. SQL uses various comparison operators such as
<, >, < =, > =, < >, any, all, and, some, etc. to compare sets.

Example: Find the names of all branches that have assets greater than those of atleast one
branch located in “Chennai”.

SQL>select distinct T. branchname from branch as T,

branch as S where T. assets > S. assets

and S. branch-city = “Chennai”;

Same query using > some clause.

SQL>select branch-name from branch where

assets > some (select assets from branch

where branch-city = “Chennai”);

SQL also allows < some, < = some, > = some, = some, and < > some
comparisons, = some is identical to in, and < > some is identical to not in. The keyword any is
synonym to some in SQL.

SQL also allows < all, > all, < = all, > = all, = all, and < > all comparisons < > all is
identical to not in.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 42
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

Example: Find the names all branches that have an-assets value greater than that of each branch
in “Chennai”.

SQL>select branch-name from branch where

assets > all (select assets from branch where

branch-city = “Chennai”);

3. Test for Empty Relations

SQL includes a feature for testing whether a subquery has any tuples
in its result.

The exists construct returns the value true if the argument subquery
is non-empty.

Example: Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the bank.

SQL>select customer-name from borrower where exists

(select * from depositor where depositor.customer-name

= borrower.customer-name);

Similar to exists we can use not exists also. Find all customers who have an account at all
branches located in “Chennai”.

SQL>select distinct S. customer-name from depositor as S

where not exists ((select branch-name from branch

where branch-city = “Chennai”) except

(select R. branch_name from depositor as T, account as R

where T. account_no = R. account_no and

S. customer-name = T. customer-name));

4. Test for absence of duplicate tuples

The unique construct tests whether a subquery has any duplicate tuples in its result.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 43
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

Example: Find all customers who have at most one account at the “Chennai branch”.

SQL>select T. customer_name from depositor as T

where unique (select R. customer-name

from account, depositor as R

where T. customer_name = R. customer-name

and R. account-no = account.account_no and

account.branch_name = “Chennai”);

not unique construct is used for test the existence of duplicate tuples in the same manner.

Complex Queries

Complex queries are often hard or impossible to write as a single SQL block.

There are two ways for composing multiple SQL blocks to express a complex query.

(1) derived relations (2) with clause.

1. Derived relations

SQL allows a subquery expression to be used in the from clause. If we use such an
expression, then we must give the result relation a name, and we can rename the attributes. For
renaming as clause is used.For example, find the average account balance of those branches
where the average account balance is greater than $ 2000.

SQL>select branch-name, avg-balance from (select branch-name,

avg (balance) from account group by branch-name)

as branch-avg (branch-name, avg-balance) where

avg-balance > 2000;

Here subquery result is named branch-avg with the attributes branch-name and avg-
balance.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 44
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

2. With Clause

The with clause provides a way of defining a temporary view, whose definition available
only to the query in which the with clause occurs.

Consider the following query, which selects accounts with the maximum balance. If
there are many accounts with the same maximum balance, all of them are selected.

with max_balance (value) as

select max (balance)

from account

select account_no from account,

max_balance where account.balance =

max_balance.value;

Views

A view is an object that gives the user a logical view of data from an
underlying table or tables (relation or relations).

It is not desirable for all users to see the entire logical model.

Security considerations may require that certain data be hidden from

users.

• Any relation that is not part of the logical model, but is made visible
to a user as a virtual relation, is called as view.

Views may be created for the following reasons:

(d) to provide data security

(e) query simplicity

(f) structural simplicity (because view contains only limited number

of columns and rows).

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 45
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

(1) Creation of

Views Syntax

create view view_name as < query expression >;

Example: Create a view customer_details from customer relation with customer name and
customer-id.

create view customer_details as

select customer_name, customer_id from customer;

(2) Assigning Names to Columns

We can assign names for the various columns in the view. This may be entirely different
from what has been used in the main relation.

For example,

SQL>create view customer_details (cust_name, customer_no)

as select customer_name, customer_id from customer;

(3) Selecting data from a view

SQL>select * from customer_details;

(4) Updation of a view

Views can also be used for data manipulation i.e., the user can perform insert,
update, and the delete operations on the view.

The views on which data manipulation can be done are called

Updatable views, the views that do not allow data manipulation are called
Readonly views.

When you give a view name in the update, insert, or delete statement, the
modification to the data will be passed to the underlying (main) relation.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 46
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

For the view to be updatable, it should meet following criteria:

1. The view must be created on a single table.

2. Primary key column of the table should be included in the view.

3. Aggregate functions cannot be used in the select statement.

4. The select statement used for creating a view should not include distinct, group by
or having clause.

5. Select statement used for creating a view should not include subqueries.

6. It must not use constant, strings or value expression like total/6.

(5) Destroying a view

A view can be dropped by using the drop view command.

Syntax

drop view view_name;

Example

SQL>drop view customer_details;

1.10.2 Joins

A join is a query using which we can query data more than one table. Joins are the basic
of multi-table query processing in SQL. A join is a query that extracts corresponding rows from
two or more tables, views or snapshots. If the two tables used in the join have the same column
name, then the column names should be prefixed with table name followed by a period.

SELECT statement of a multi-table query must contain a filter condition that specify the
column match. The where clause is used to specify the selection condition and the join condition.
In the where clause the logical operators can also be used.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 47
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

Types of joins

Joins are classified into four types namely:

1. Inner Join

2. Outer Join

3. Natural Join

1. Inner Join

Inner join returns the matching rows from the tables that are being joined.

Consider following two relations:

i) Student(sname,place)

ii) Student_marks(sname,dept,mark)

Student sname place

Prajan Chennai
Anand Kolkata
Kumar Delhi
Ravi Mumbai

Student_marks dept mark

sname
Prajan CS 700
Anand
IT 650
Vasu
CS 680
Ravi
IT 600
Example 1

SQL>select Student.sname,Student_marks,mark from Student inner join Student_marks

on Student.sname=Student_marks.sname;

The output of the above query is

sname mark
Prajan 700
Anand 650
Ravi 600

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 48
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

Example 2:

SQL>select * from Student inner join Student_marks on

Student.sname=Student_marks.sname;

The result of the above query is

sname place sname dept mark

Prajan Chennai Prajan CSE 700
Anand Kolkata Anand IT 650
Ravi Mumbai Ravi IT 600
For example 2 the result consists of the attributes of the left-hand-side relation followed
by the attributes of the right-hand-side relation. Thus, the sname attribute appears twice in result,
first is from student table and second is from student_marks table.

2. Outer Join

When tables are joined using inner join, rows which contain matching values in the join
predicate are returned. Sometimes you may want both matching and non-matching rows returned
for the tables that are being joined. This kind of operation is known as an outer join.

An outer join is an extended form of the inner join. In this, the rows in one table having
no matching rows in the other table will also appear in the result table with nulls.

Types of Outer Join

The Outer Join can be any one of the

following: o Left outer

o Right outer
1. Left outer join

The left outer join returns matching rows from the tables being joined and also non-
matching rows from the left table in the result and places null values in the attributes that come
from the right table.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 49
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

Example 3

SQL>select Student.sname, Student_marks.mark from Student left outer join

Student_marks on Student.sname = Student_marks.sname;

The result of above query is

sname mark
Prajan 700
Anand 650
Ravi 600
Kumar null
Left outer join operation is computed as follows:

First compute the result of inner join as before. Then, for every tuple ‘t’ in the left hand
side relation, Student that does not match any tuple in the right-hand –side relation
Student_marks in the inner join , add a tuple ‘r’ to the result of the join: The attributes of tuple ‘r’
that are derived from the left-hand-side relation are filled with from tuple ‘t’, remaining attributes
of ‘r’ are filled with null values as shown in example 3.

2. Right outer join

The right outer join operation returns matching rows from the tables being joined, and
also non-matching rows from the right table in the table in the result and places null values in the
attributes that comes from the left table.

Example 4

SQL>select Student.sname,Student.place,Student_marks.mark from Student

right outer join Student_marks on Student.sname =

Student_marks.sname; The result of above query is

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 50
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

sname place mark

Prajan Chennai 700
Anand Kolkota 650
Ravi Mumbai 600
Vasu null 680

EMBEDDED SQL

SQL provides a powerful declarative query language. However, access to a database from a
general-purpose programming language is required because,

• SQL is not as powerful as a general-purpose programming language. There are

queries that cannot be expressed in SQL, but can be programmed in C, Fortran,
Pascal, Cobol, etc.

• Non declarative actions -- such as printing a report, interacting with a user, or sending
the result to a GUI -- cannot be done from within SQL.

The SQL standard defines embedding of SQL as embedded SQL and the language in
which SQL queries are embedded is referred as host language.
An embedded SQL statement is distinguished from the host language statements by
enclosing it between EXEC SQL or EXEC SQL BEGIN and a matching END-EXEC or
EXEC SQL END (or semicolon)
• Syntax may vary with language

• Shared variables (used in both languages) usually prefixed with a colon (:) in SQL

Embedded SQL in C Program Examples

Example 1
/* Variable Declaration in Language C */
Variables inside DECLARE are shared and can appear (while prefixed by a colon) in
SQL statements

SQLCODE is used to communicate errors/exceptions between the database and the

program

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 51
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

int loop;

EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;

varchar dname[16], fname[16], …;

char ssn[10], bdate[11], …;

int dno, dnumber, SQLCODE, …;

EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;

Example 2

/* Conditional and Looping Statements in Language C */

loop = 1;

while (loop) {

prompt (“Enter SSN: “, ssn);

EXEC SQL

select FNAME, LNAME, ADDRESS, SALARY

into :fname, :lname, :address, :salary

from EMPLOYEE where SSN == :ssn;

if (SQLCODE == 0) printf(fname, …);

else printf(“SSN does not exist: “, ssn);

prompt(“More SSN? (1=yes, 0=no): “,

loop); END-EXEC

Example 3

/*Embedded SQL in C Programming using Cursor */

Embedded C program to do the following:

1. Starting with a station name (Chennai, in this example), look up the station ID.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 52
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

2. Print the station ID.

3. List all rows for that station ID.

shows single-row select and use of cursor

Note that all C-language variables used in SQL statements are declared in the DECLARE
SECTION.

Note that all SQL statements begin with the syntax EXEC SQL and terminate with a
semicolon.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION;
long station_id;
long mon;
float temp;
float rain;
char city_name[21];
long SQLCODE;
EXEC SQL END DECLARE SECTION;
main()
{
/* the CONNECT statement, if needed, goes here
*/ strcpy(city_name,"Chennai");
EXEC SQL SELECT ID INTO
:station_id FROM STATION
WHERE CITY = :city_name;
if (SQLCODE == 100)
{
printf("There is no station for city %s\n",city_name);
exit(0);
}
printf("For the city %s, Station ID is %ld\n",city_name,station_id);
printf("And here is the weather data:\n");

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 53
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

EXEC SQL DECLARE XYZ CURSOR FOR

SELECT MONTH, TEMP_F, RAIN_I
FROM STATS
WHERE ID =
:station_id ORDER BY
MONTH;
EXEC SQL OPEN XYZ;
while (SQLCODE != 100) {
EXEC SQL FETCH XYZ INTO :mon, :temp,
:rain; if (SQLCODE == 100)
printf("end of list\n");
else
printf("month = %ld, temperature = %f, rainfall = %f\n",mon,temp,rain);

EXEC SQL CLOSE XYZ;

exit(0);
}

Output
For the city Chennai, Station ID is
44 And here is the weather data:
month = 1, temperature = 27.299999, rainfall = 0.180000
month = 7, temperature = 74.800003, rainfall = 2.110000
end of list

DYNAMIC SQL

Unlike static SQL, which remains the same in each execution, dynamic SQL enables you
to build SQL statements as character strings at runtime. The strings contain the text of a SQL
statement or PL/SQL block and can also contain placeholders for bind arguments.

You can create general purpose, flexible applications with dynamic SQL because the full
text of a SQL statement may be unknown at compilation. You can use dynamic SQL in several
different development environments, including PL/SQL, Pro*C/C++, and Java.

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 54
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

For an example of an application that uses dynamic SQL, suppose that a reporting

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 55
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

application in a data warehouse environment does not know a table name until runtime. These
tables are named according to the starting month and year of the quarter, for example,
inv_01_2003, inv_04_2003, inv_07_2003, inv_10_2003, inv_01_2004, and so on. You can use
dynamic SQL in your reporting application to specify the table name at runtime.

In a different example, suppose that you want to run a complex query with a user-
selectable sort order. Instead of coding the query twice with a different ORDER BY clause in
each query, you can construct the query dynamically to include a specified ORDER BY clause.

Programming with Dynamic SQL

For the sake of consistency, this chapter discusses dynamic SQL mainly from the
perspective of PL/SQL. To process most dynamic SQL statements, you use the EXECUTE
IMMEDIATE statement. To process a multi-row query in a PL/SQL procedure, you use the
OPEN-FOR, FETCH, and CLOSE statements.

Oracle Database enables you to implement dynamic SQL in a PL/SQL application in the
following ways:

• Using native dynamic SQL, which involves placing dynamic SQL statements directly
into PL/SQL blocks
• Calling procedures in the DBMS_SQL package

Although this chapter discusses PL/SQL support for dynamic SQL, you can call dynamic
SQL from other languages:

• If you use C/C++, you can call dynamic SQL with the Oracle Call Interface (OCI), or
you can use the Pro*C/C++ precompiler to add dynamic SQL extensions to your C
code.
• If you use COBOL, you can use the Pro*COBOL precompiler to add dynamic SQL
extensions to your COBOL code.
• If you use Java, you can develop applications that use dynamic SQL with JDBC.

Why Use Dynamic SQL?

Dynamic SQL and static SQL both have advantages and disadvantages. The full text of

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 56
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

static SQL statements is known at compilation, which provides the following benefits:

• Successful compilation verifies that the SQL statements reference valid database
objects and that the necessary privileges are in place to access the objects.
• Performance of static SQL is generally better than dynamic SQL.

Despite these advantages, static SQL has limitations that can be overcome with dynamic
SQL, as in the following cases:

• We do not know the full text of the SQL statements that must be executed in a
PL/SQL procedure. These SQL statements may depend on user input or on processing
work performed by the program.
• We want to execute DDL statements and other SQL statements that are not supported
in purely static SQL programs.
• We want to write a program that can handle changes in data definitions without the
need to recompile. Dynamic SQL is more flexible than static SQL because it enables
you to write reusable code that can be adapted for different environments.

Executing DDL Statements in PL/SQL

Only dynamic SQL can execute the following types of statements within PL/SQL
program units:

• Data definition language (DDL) statements such as CREATE, DROP etc.,

• The TABLE clause in the SELECT statement

The following native dynamic SQL example uses a SELECT statement with the TABLE
clause.

Example 1 Using SELECT . . . TABLE in Dynamic SQL

-- Create an object t_emp and a datatype t_emplist as a table of type t_emp

CREATE TYPE t_emp AS OBJECT (id NUMBER, name VARCHAR2(20))

CREATE TYPE t_emplist AS TABLE OF t_emp

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 57
 www.Poriyaa
n.in

-- Create a table with a nested table of type t_emplist

CREATE TABLE dept_new (id NUMBER, emps t_emplist)

NESTED TABLE emps STORE AS emp_table;

-- Populate the dept_new table with data

INSERT INTO dept_new VALUES

10,

t_emplist

t_emp(1, 'Pradeep'),

t_emp(2, 'Kumar')

);

-- Write a PL/SQL block that queries table dept_new and nested table emps

-- SELECT ... FROM ... TABLE is not allowed in static SQL in PL/SQL

DECLARE

v_deptid NUMBER;

v_ename VARCHAR2(20);

BEGIN

EXECUTE IMMEDIATE 'SELECT d.id, e.name

FROM dept_new d, TABLE(d.emps) e

WHERE e.id = 1'

INTO v_deptid, v_ename;

END;

https://play.google.com/store/apps/details? 58
 Database Management System

Unit I: Relational Databases

Introduction to DBMS | Purpose of Database System | Views of Data | Data Models |
Database System Architecture Work | Data Independence | Three Schema
Architecture | Introduction to Relational Databases | Relational Model | Keys |
Integrity Constraints | Database Integrity | Relational Algebra | Example of
Relational Algebra | SQL Fundamentals | Example of SQL Fundamentals | Advanced
SQL Features | Two marks Questions with Answers |

Unit II: Databases Design

Introduction to Entity Relationship Model | Mapping Cardinality | ER Diagrams |
Enhanced ER Model | Examples based on ER Diagram | ER to Relational Mapping |
Concept of Relational Database Design | Functional Dependencies | Concept
of Redundancy and Anomalies | Decomposition | Normal Forms | Boyce / Codd
Normal Form (BCNF) | Multivalued Dependencies and Fourth Normal Form | Join
Dependencies and Fifth Normal Form | Example on Normalization | Two marks
Questions with Answers |

Unit III: Transactions

Transaction Concepts | ACID Properties |
Transaction States | Schedules | Serializability | Transaction Support in SQL |
Concurrency Control | Need for Concurrency | Locking Protocols | Two Phase Locking
| Timestamp Based Protocol | Multi- version Concurrency Control | Validation and
Snapshot Isolation | Multiple Granularity Locking | Isolation Ievels | Deadlock
Handling | Recovery Concepts | Recovery
Techniques | Recovery based on Deferred Immediate Update | Shadow Paging |
ARIES Algorithm | Two marks Questions with Answers |

Unit IV: Implementation Techniques

RAID | File Organization | Organization of Records in Files | Data Dictionary Storage |
Column Oriented Storage | Indexing and Hashing | Ordered Indices | B+ Tree Index
Files | B Tree Index Files | Concept of Hashing | Static Hashing | Dynamic
Hashing | Query Processing Overview | Measure of Query Cost | Algorithms for
Selection,Sorting and Join Operations | Query Optimization using Heuristics - Cost
Estimation | Two marks Questions with Answers |

Unit V: Advanced Topics

Distributed Databases | NOSQL Databases | CAP Theorem | Types of NoSQL
Database | Database Security | Security Issues | Access Control Based on
Privileges or Discretionary Access Control | Role Based Access Control | SQL
Injection | Statistical Database Security | Flow Control | Encryption and Public Key
Infrastructures | Challenges | Two marks Questions with Answers |
 2nd Semester 3rd Semester
1st Semester
Professional English II Discrete Mathematics
Professional English I
Statistics and Numerical
Methods Digital Principles and
Matrices and Calculus
Computer Organization
Engineering Graphics
Engineering Physics
Foundation of Data
Physics for Information
Science
Engineering Chemistry Science

Basic Electrical and Data Structure

Problem Solving and Electronics Engineering
Python Programming Object Oriented
Programming in C
Programming

4th Semester 5th Semester 6th Semester

Theory of Computation Computer Networks Object Oriented
Software
Compiler Design Engineering
Artificial Intelligence
and Machine Learning Embedded Systems IoT
Cryptography and
Database Management Cyber Security Open Elective I
System
Professional Elective III
Algorithms Distributed
Professional Elective IV
Computing Professional Professional Elective V
Introduction to Operating
Systems
Elective I Professional Professional Elective VI
Environmental Sciences
and sustainability Elective
MandatoryII Course I Mandatory Course II

7th Semester 8th Semester

Human Values and Ethics Project Work/Internship

Elective-Management

Professional Elective II

Professional Elective III

Professional Elective IV