The Concept of Research

Definition

Research is a systematic and scientific process of inquiry undertaken to generate new

knowledge, verify existing information, or solve problems. Unlike casual observation or personal
opinion, research relies on planned procedures, empirical evidence, and logical reasoning. Its
purpose is to produce credible knowledge that informs theory, practice, and policy (Creswell,
2014; Kerlinger, 1986).

Core Process of Research

At the heart of research lies a problem or question that requires investigation. The process
typically follows these steps:

1. Problem identification – defining the issue clearly to ensure focus.

2. Literature review – examining existing studies to identify what is known and where
gaps remain.
3. Method selection – choosing appropriate tools and techniques to collect data.
4. Data collection – gathering information systematically.
5. Analysis and interpretation – applying logical techniques to draw evidence-based
conclusions (Kothari, 2004).

Key Characteristics of Research

Research is distinguished by several defining features:

 Systematic – follows an orderly sequence of steps.

 Empirical – conclusions are based on observable and measurable data.
 Logical and critical – requires careful reasoning and evaluation of evidence.
 Replicable – allows other researchers to repeat the study and verify findings.
 Ethical – demands honesty, transparency, and respect for participants’ rights (Neuman,
2011).

Importance of Research

In academic and professional fields such as education, health, and social sciences, research plays
a vital role by:

 Advancing knowledge and theory.

 Informing effective practices.
 Guiding policy formulation and evaluation.

Without research, progress would rely on speculation rather than systematic investigation.
2. Basic Types of Research
Research can be classified according to its purpose and the intended use of findings. This
classification helps researchers decide whether their study aims to build theory, solve practical
problems, improve practice, or evaluate programs and policies. Understanding these types is
essential for selecting an appropriate research direction (Creswell, 2014; Kothari, 2004).

2.1 Basic (Pure or Fundamental) Research

Basic research seeks to expand knowledge and develop theory without immediate concern for
practical application. Its primary goal is to understand underlying principles, relationships, or
phenomena. Findings contribute to the theoretical foundation of a discipline and often serve as
the basis for later applied studies.

 Driven by curiosity and the desire to advance scientific understanding.

 Long-term impact: though not immediately usable, it is crucial for academic and
scientific progress.
 Example: Exploring theories of learning or cognitive development.

2.2 Applied Research

Applied research focuses on solving specific, real-world problems by using existing knowledge
and theories. Unlike basic research, it is action-oriented and designed to produce findings that
directly inform practice, policy, or decision-making.

 Common in fields such as education, health, agriculture, and development.

 Outcomes are used to improve programs, interventions, or policies.
 Example: Studying the effectiveness of a new teaching strategy in improving student
achievement.

2.3 Action Research

Action research is a participatory form of applied research conducted by practitioners to

improve their own professional practice. It is cyclical in nature, involving planning, action,
observation, and reflection.

 The researcher and practitioner are often the same person.

 Emphasizes immediate problem-solving and continuous improvement in a specific
context.
 Example: A teacher investigating methods to increase student participation in class.
2.4 Evaluation Research

Evaluation research assesses the effectiveness, efficiency, or impact of a program, project, or

policy. It provides evidence to determine whether objectives are being met and whether
resources are used appropriately.

 Supports accountability and informed decision-making.

 Can be formative (during implementation) or summative (after completion).
 Example: Evaluating the outcomes of a school feeding or literacy program.

3. Research Approaches
Research approaches refer to the overall strategy and orientation that guide how a study is
planned, conducted, and analyzed. They reflect the researcher’s assumptions about reality, the
type of knowledge sought, and the most appropriate way to obtain that knowledge. The choice of
approach depends on the research problem, objectives, and the kind of data required (Creswell,
2014; Neuman, 2011).

3.1 Quantitative Research Approach

The quantitative approach emphasizes measurement, numerical data, and statistical

analysis. It is used to test hypotheses, examine relationships between variables, or determine
cause-and-effect patterns. This approach assumes that reality is objective and can be measured
using standardized instruments.

 Data collection methods: surveys, questionnaires, tests, experiments.

 Sample size: typically large, allowing generalization to wider populations.
 Data analysis: statistical techniques; results presented in numbers, tables, and graphs.
 Strengths: objectivity, precision, generalizability.
 Limitations: may not capture depth of human experiences or contextual factors.

3.2 Qualitative Research Approach

The qualitative approach focuses on meanings, experiences, and social processes from
participants’ perspectives. It is used to explore complex phenomena in depth rather than measure
them numerically. This approach assumes that reality is socially constructed and
context-dependent.

 Data collection methods: interviews, focus groups, observations, document analysis.

 Sample size: usually small, purposively selected.
 Data analysis: identification of patterns, themes, and interpretations from textual or
visual data.
  Strengths: rich, detailed insights into human behavior and context.
 Limitations: findings are often specific to the study setting and less generalizable.

3.3 Mixed Methods Research Approach

The mixed methods approach integrates both quantitative and qualitative strategies within a
single study. It is used when neither approach alone is sufficient to fully address the research
problem. By combining numerical trends with in-depth qualitative insights, researchers gain a
more comprehensive understanding.

 Designs: sequential (quantitative first, then qualitative, or vice versa) or concurrent (both
collected simultaneously).
 Strengths: enhances validity through triangulation; provides richer analysis.
 Limitations: requires more time, resources, and methodological expertise.

4. Quantitative Sampling
Definition

Quantitative sampling is the process of selecting a representative subset of a population using

probability-based methods so that findings can be generalized to the entire population. It is a core
component of quantitative research because it determines the accuracy, validity, and reliability
of statistical results (Creswell, 2014; Kothari, 2004).

Why Sampling is Necessary

Studying an entire population is often impractical due to time, cost, and accessibility
constraints. Sampling allows researchers to draw valid conclusions by studying a smaller,
carefully selected group. In quantitative research, sampling must be objective, systematic, and
free from bias, achieved through probability techniques.

Key Concepts

 Population: The entire group of individuals or elements under study (e.g., all primary
school teachers in a region).
 Sample: A subset of the population selected for data collection; its quality directly affects
credibility.
 Sampling Frame: A complete list of all members of the population (e.g., school register,
employee list).
 Sample Size: The number of elements included in the sample; larger sizes increase
statistical power and reduce error.
Types of Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

 Every member has an equal chance of selection.

 Methods: random number tables, software, lottery.
 Strength: Minimizes bias.
 Limitation: Requires a complete sampling frame.

2. Stratified Random Sampling

 Population divided into subgroups (strata) such as gender, grade, or region.

 Random samples drawn from each stratum.
 Strength: Ensures subgroup representation.
 Limitation: Needs detailed population information.

3. Systematic Sampling

 Select every nth element after a random start.

 Strength: Simple and efficient.
 Limitation: Risk of bias if list has patterns.

4. Cluster Sampling

 Population divided into clusters (e.g., schools, districts).

 Random clusters selected; all members within included.
 Strength: Cost-effective for large or dispersed populations.
 Limitation: Less precise if clusters are internally diverse.

Importance of Quantitative Sampling

Quantitative sampling is vital because it:

 Enhances representativeness.
 Reduces bias.
 Enables statistical inference.
 Improves validity and reliability.
 Supports evidence-based conclusions (Neuman, 2011).
References

 Babbie, E. R. (2020). The practice of social research (15th ed.). Cengage Learning.
 Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.
 Cochran, W. G. (1977). Sampling techniques (3rd ed.). Wiley.
 Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research methods in education (8th ed.).
Routledge.
 Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods
approaches (4th ed.). Sage Publications.
 Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2017). Designing and conducting mixed methods
research (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.
 Fowler, F. J. (2014). Survey research methods (5th ed.). Sage Publications.
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 Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques (2nd ed.). New
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 Lohr, S. L. (2019). Sampling: Design and analysis (2nd ed.). Chapman & Hall/CRC.
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 Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research & evaluation methods (4th ed.). Sage
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