Java (programming language)

Java is a high-level, general-purpose, memory-safe, object-oriented programming language. It is

intended to let programmers write once, run anywhere (WORA),[17] meaning that compiled Java
code can run on all platforms that support Java without the need to recompile.[18] Java applications
are typically compiled to bytecode that can run on any Java virtual machine (JVM) regardless of the
underlying computer architecture. The syntax of Java is similar to C and C++, but has fewer low-
level facilities than either of them. The Java runtime provides dynamic capabilities (such as
reflection and runtime code modification) that are typically not available in traditional compiled
languages.

Java gained popularity shortly after its release, and has been a popular programming language
since then.[19] Java was the third most popular programming language in 2022 according to
GitHub.[20] Although still widely popular, there has been a gradual decline in use of Java in recent
years with other languages using JVM gaining popularity.[21]

Java was designed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems. It was released in May 1995 as a core
component of Sun's Java platform. The original and reference implementation Java compilers,
virtual machines, and class libraries were released by Sun under proprietary licenses. As of May
2007, in compliance with the specifications of the Java Community Process, Sun had relicensed
most of its Java technologies under the GPL-2.0-only license. Oracle, which bought Sun in 2010,
offers its own HotSpot Java Virtual Machine. However, the official reference implementation is the
OpenJDK JVM, which is open-source software used by most developers and is the default JVM for
almost all Linux distributions.

Java 25 is the version current as of September 2025. Java 8, 11, 17, 21, and 25 are long-term
support versions still under maintenance.
History Java

Paradigm Multi-paradigm:
Duke, the Java
generic, object-
mascot
oriented (class-
based), functional,
imperative, reflective,
concurrent

Designed by James Gosling

Developer Oracle Corporation

First appeared May 23, 1995[1]

Stable release Java SE 25[2] / 16

September 2025
James Gosling, the creator of Java, in 2008

James Gosling, Mike Sheridan, and Patrick Typing discipline Static, strong, safe,
nominative, manifest
Naughton initiated the Java language project in
June 1991.[22] Java was originally designed for Memory Garbage-collected
interactive television, but it was too advanced for management

the digital cable television industry at the time.[23]

Filename extensions .java, .class, .jar,
The language was initially called Oak after an oak
.jmod, .war
tree that stood outside Gosling's office. Later the
project went by the name Green and was finally Website [Link]/java/ (htt

renamed Java, from Java coffee, a type of coffee p://[Link]/jav

a/)
from Indonesia.[24] Gosling designed Java with a
[Link] ([Link]
C/C++-style syntax that system and application
com)
programmers would find familiar.[25]
Sun Microsystems released the first public [Link] ([Link]

implementation as Java 1.0 in 1996.[26] It va)

promised write once, run anywhere (WORA)

Influenced by
functionality, providing no-cost run-times on
CLU,[3] Simula67,[3] Lisp,[3] Smalltalk,[3] Ada 83,
popular platforms. Fairly secure and featuring
C++,[4] C#,[5] Eiffel,[6] Mesa,[7] Modula-3,[8]
configurable security, it allowed network- and file-
Oberon,[9] Objective-C,[10] UCSD Pascal,[11][12]
access restrictions. Major web browsers soon
Object Pascal[13]
incorporated the ability to run Java applets within
web pages, and Java quickly became popular. Influenced

The Java 1.0 compiler was re-written in Java by

Ada 2005, ArkTS, BeanShell, C#, Chapel,[14]
Arthur van Hoff to comply strictly with the Java
Clojure, ECMAScript, Fantom, Gambas,[15]
[27]
1.0 language specification. With the advent of Groovy, Hack,[16] Haxe, J#, JavaScript, JS++,
Java 2 (released initially as J2SE 1.2 in December Kotlin, PHP, Python, Scala, Vala
1998 – 1999), new versions had multiple
Java Programming at Wikibooks
configurations built for different types of
platforms. J2EE included technologies and APIs
for enterprise applications typically run in server environments, while J2ME featured APIs optimized
for mobile applications. The desktop version was renamed J2SE. In 2006, for marketing purposes,
Sun renamed new J2 versions as Java EE, Java ME, and Java SE, respectively.

In 1997, Sun Microsystems approached the ISO/IEC JTC 1 standards body and later the Ecma
International to formalize Java, but it soon withdrew from the process.[28][29][30] Java remains a de
facto standard, controlled through the Java Community Process.[31] At one time, Sun made most of
its Java implementations available without charge, despite their proprietary software status. Sun
generated revenue from Java through the selling of licenses for specialized products such as the
Java Enterprise System.

On November 13, 2006, Sun released much of its Java virtual machine (JVM) as free and open-
source software (FOSS), under the terms of the GPL-2.0-only license. On May 8, 2007, Sun finished
the process, making all of its JVM's core code available under free software/open-source
distribution terms, aside from a small portion of code to which Sun did not hold the copyright.[32]

Sun's vice-president Rich Green said that Sun's ideal role with regard to Java was as an
evangelist.[33] Following Oracle Corporation's acquisition of Sun Microsystems in 2009–10, Oracle
has described itself as the steward of Java technology with a relentless commitment to fostering a
community of participation and transparency.[34] This did not prevent Oracle from filing a lawsuit
against Google shortly after that for using Java inside the Android SDK (see the Android section).
On April 2, 2010, James Gosling resigned from Oracle.[35]

In January 2016, Oracle announced that Java run-time environments based on JDK 9 will
discontinue the browser plugin.[36]

Java software runs on most devices from laptops to data centers, game consoles to scientific
supercomputers.[37]

Oracle (and others) highly recommend uninstalling outdated and unsupported versions of Java, due
to unresolved security issues in older versions.[38]

Principles

There were five primary goals in creating the Java language:[18]

1. It must be simple, object-oriented, and familiar.

2. It must be robust and secure.

3. It must be architecture-neutral and portable.

4. It must execute with high performance.

5. It must be interpreted, threaded, and dynamic.

Versions

As of September 2025, Java 8, 11, 17, 21, and 25 are supported as long-term support (LTS)
versions.[39]

Oracle released the last zero-cost public update for the legacy version Java 8 LTS in January 2019
for commercial use, although it will otherwise still support Java 8 with public updates for personal
use indefinitely. Other vendors such as Adoptium continue to offer free builds of OpenJDK's long-
term support (LTS) versions. These builds may include additional security patches and bug fixes.[40]

Major release versions of Java, along with their release dates:

 Version Date

JDK Beta 1995

JDK 1.0 January 23, 1996[41]

JDK 1.1 February 19, 1997

J2SE 1.2 December 8, 1998

J2SE 1.3 May 8, 2000

J2SE 1.4 February 6, 2002

J2SE 5.0 September 30, 2004

Java SE 6 December 11, 2006

Java SE 7 July 28, 2011

Java SE 8 (LTS) March 18, 2014

Java SE 9 September 21, 2017

Java SE 10 March 20, 2018

Java SE 11 (LTS) September 25, 2018[42]

Java SE 12 March 19, 2019

Java SE 13 September 17, 2019

Java SE 14 March 17, 2020

Java SE 15 September 15, 2020[43]

Java SE 16 March 16, 2021

Java SE 17 (LTS) September 14, 2021

Java SE 18 March 22, 2022

Java SE 19 September 20, 2022

Java SE 20 March 21, 2023

Java SE 21 (LTS) September 19, 2023[44]

Java SE 22 March 19, 2024

Java SE 23 September 17, 2024

Java SE 24 18 March 2025[45]

Java SE 25 (LTS) 16 September 2025[46]

Editions

Sun has defined and supports four editions of Java targeting different application environments and
segmented many of its APIs so that they belong to one of the platforms. The platforms are:

Java Card for smart-cards.[47]

 Java Platform, Micro Edition (Java ME) – targeting environments with limited resources.[48]

Java Platform, Standard Edition (Java SE) – targeting workstation environments.[49]

Java Platform, Enterprise Edition (Java EE) – targeting large distributed enterprise or Internet
environments.[50]

The classes in the Java APIs are organized into separate groups called packages. Each package
contains a set of related interfaces, classes, subpackages and exceptions.

Sun also provided an edition called Personal Java that has been superseded by later, standards-
based Java ME configuration-profile pairings.

Execution system

Java JVM and bytecode

One design goal of Java is portability, which means that programs written for the Java platform
must run similarly on any combination of hardware and operating system with adequate run time
support. This is achieved by compiling the Java language code to an intermediate representation
called Java bytecode, instead of directly to architecture-specific machine code. Java bytecode
instructions are analogous to machine code, but they are intended to be executed by a virtual
machine (VM) written specifically for the host hardware. End-users commonly use a Java Runtime
Environment (JRE) installed on their device for standalone Java applications or a web browser for
Java applets.

Standard libraries provide a generic way to access host-specific features such as graphics,
threading, and networking.

The use of universal bytecode makes porting simple. However, the overhead of interpreting
bytecode into machine instructions made interpreted programs almost always run more slowly than
native executables. Just-in-time (JIT) compilers that compile byte-codes to machine code during
runtime were introduced from an early stage. Java's Hotspot compiler is actually two compilers in
one; and with GraalVM (included in e.g. Java 11, but removed as of Java 16) allowing tiered
compilation.[51] Java itself is platform-independent and is adapted to the particular platform it is to
run on by a Java virtual machine (JVM), which translates the Java bytecode into the platform's
machine language.[52]
Performance

Programs written in Java have a reputation for being slower and requiring more memory than those
written in C++.[53][54] However, Java programs' execution speed improved significantly with the
introduction of just-in-time compilation in 1997/1998 for Java 1.1,[55] the addition of language
features supporting better code analysis (such as inner classes, the StringBuilder class, optional
assertions, etc.), and optimizations in the Java virtual machine, such as HotSpot becoming Sun's
default JVM in 2000. With Java 1.5, the performance was improved with the addition of the
[Link] package, including lock-free implementations of the ConcurrentMaps
and other multi-core collections, and it was improved further with Java 1.6.

Non-JVM

Some platforms offer direct hardware support for Java; there are micro controllers that can run Java
bytecode in hardware instead of a software Java virtual machine,[56] and some ARM-based
processors could have hardware support for executing Java bytecode through their Jazelle option,
though support has mostly been dropped in current implementations of ARM.

Automatic memory management

Java uses an automatic garbage collector to manage memory in the object lifecycle. The
programmer determines when objects are created, and the Java runtime is responsible for
recovering the memory once objects are no longer in use. Once no references to an object remain,
the unreachable memory becomes eligible to be freed automatically by the garbage collector.
Something similar to a memory leak may still occur if a programmer's code holds a reference to an
object that is no longer needed, typically when objects that are no longer needed are stored in
containers that are still in use.[57] If methods for a non-existent object are called, a null pointer
exception is thrown.[58][59]

One of the ideas behind Java's automatic memory management model is that programmers can be
spared the burden of having to perform manual memory management. In some languages, memory
for the creation of objects is implicitly allocated on the stack or explicitly allocated and deallocated
from the heap. In the latter case, the responsibility of managing memory resides with the
programmer. If the program does not deallocate an object, a memory leak occurs.[57] If the program
attempts to access or deallocate memory that has already been deallocated, the result is undefined
and difficult to predict, and the program is likely to become unstable or crash. This can be partially
remedied by the use of smart pointers, but these add overhead and complexity. Garbage collection
does not prevent logical memory leaks, i.e. those where the memory is still referenced but never
used.[57]

Garbage collection may happen at any time. Ideally, it will occur when a program is idle. It is
guaranteed to be triggered if there is insufficient free memory on the heap to allocate a new object;
this can cause a program to stall momentarily. Explicit memory management is not possible in
Java.

Java does not support C/C++ style pointer arithmetic,[60] where object addresses can be
arithmetically manipulated (e.g. by adding or subtracting an offset). This allows the garbage
collector to relocate referenced objects and ensures type safety and security.

As in C++ and some other object-oriented languages, variables of Java's primitive data types are
either stored directly in fields (for objects) or on the stack (for methods) rather than on the heap, as
is commonly true for non-primitive data types (but see escape analysis). This was a conscious
decision by Java's designers for performance reasons.

Java contains multiple types of garbage collectors. Since Java 9, HotSpot uses the Garbage First
Garbage Collector (G1GC) as the default.[61] However, there are also several other garbage
collectors that can be used to manage the heap, such as the Z Garbage Collector (ZGC) introduced
in Java 11, and Shenandoah GC, introduced in Java 12 but unavailable in Oracle-produced OpenJDK
builds. Shenandoah is instead available in third-party builds of OpenJDK, such as Eclipse Temurin.
For most applications in Java, G1GC is sufficient. In prior versions of Java, such as Java 8, the
Parallel Garbage Collector ([Link]
[Link]) was used as the default garbage collector.

Having solved the memory management problem does not relieve the programmer of the burden of
handling properly other kinds of resources, like network or database connections, file handles, etc.,
especially in the presence of exceptions.
Syntax

This dependency graph of the

Java Core classes was created
with jdeps and Gephi.

The syntax of Java is largely influenced by C++ and C. Unlike C++, which combines the syntax for
structured, generic, and object-oriented programming, Java was built almost exclusively as an
object-oriented language.[18] All code is written inside classes, and every data item is an object, with
the exception of the primitive data types, (i.e. integers, floating-point numbers, boolean values, and
characters), which are not objects for performance reasons.

Unlike C++, Java does not support operator overloading[62] or multiple inheritance for classes,
though multiple inheritance is supported for interfaces.[63]

Java uses comments similar to those of C++. There are three different styles of comments: a single
line style marked with two slashes ( // ), a multiple line style opened with /* and closed with */ ,
and the Javadoc commenting style opened with /** and closed with */ . The Javadoc style of

commenting allows the user to run the Javadoc executable to create documentation for the
program and can be read by some integrated development environments (IDEs) such as Eclipse to
allow developers to access documentation within the IDE.

Hello world

The following is an example of a "Hello, World!" program in the traditional Java syntax:

1 public class HelloWorld {

2 public static void main(String[] args) {
3 [Link]("Hello World!");
 4 }
5 }

Java 25 introduced a simplified syntax for the main class and main method, which enables users to
write small Java programs succinctly:[64][65]

1 void main() {
2 [Link]("Hello World!");
3 }

Special classes

Applet

Java applets were programs embedded in other applications, mainly in web pages displayed in web
browsers. The Java applet API was deprecated with the release of Java 9 in 2017.[66][67]

Servlet

Java servlet technology provides Web developers with a simple, consistent mechanism for
extending the functionality of a Web server and for accessing existing business systems. Servlets
are server-side Java EE components that generate responses to requests from clients. Most of the
time, this means generating HTML pages in response to HTTP requests, although there are a
number of other standard servlet classes available, for example for WebSocket communication.

The Java servlet API has to some extent been superseded (but still used under the hood) by two
standard Java technologies for web services:

the Java API for RESTful Web Services (JAX-RS 2.0) useful for AJAX, JSON and REST services,
and

the Java API for XML Web Services (JAX-WS) useful for SOAP Web Services.

Typical implementations of these APIs on Application Servers or Servlet Containers use a standard
servlet for handling all interactions with the HTTP requests and responses that delegate to the web
service methods for the actual business logic.
JavaServer Pages

JavaServer Pages (JSP) are server-side Java EE components that generate responses, typically
HTML pages, to HTTP requests from clients. JSPs embed Java code in an HTML page by using the
special delimiters <% and %> . A JSP is compiled to a Java servlet, a Java application in its own

right, the first time it is accessed. After that, the generated servlet creates the response.[68]

Swing application

Swing is a graphical user interface library for the Java SE platform. It is possible to specify a
different look and feel through the pluggable look and feel system of Swing. Clones of Windows,
GTK+, and Motif are supplied by Sun. Apple also provides an Aqua look and feel for macOS. Where
prior implementations of these looks and feels may have been considered lacking, Swing in Java SE
6 addresses this problem by using more native GUI widget drawing routines of the underlying
platforms.[69]

JavaFX application

JavaFX is a software platform for creating and delivering desktop applications, as well as rich web
applications that can run across a wide variety of devices. JavaFX is intended to replace Swing as
the standard graphical user interface (GUI) library for Java SE, but since JDK 11 JavaFX has not
been in the core JDK and instead in a separate module.[70] JavaFX has support for desktop
computers and web browsers on Microsoft Windows, Linux, and macOS. JavaFX does not have
support for native OS look and feels.[71]

Generics

In 2004, generics were added to the Java language, as part of J2SE 5.0. Prior to the introduction of
generics, each variable declaration had to be of a specific type. For container classes, for example,
this is a problem because there is no easy way to create a container that accepts only specific types
of objects. Either the container operates on all subtypes of a class or interface, usually Object , or

a different container class has to be created for each contained class. Generics allow compile-time
type checking without having to create many container classes, each containing almost identical
code. In addition to enabling more efficient code, certain runtime exceptions are prevented from
occurring, by issuing compile-time errors. If Java prevented all runtime type errors
( ClassCastException s) from occurring, it would be type safe.

In 2016, the type system of Java was proven unsound in that it is possible to use generics to
construct classes and methods that allow assignment of an instance of one class to a variable of
another unrelated class. Such code is accepted by the compiler, but fails at run time with a class
cast exception.[72]

Criticism

Criticisms directed at Java include the implementation of generics,[73] speed,[53] the handling of
unsigned numbers,[74] the implementation of floating-point arithmetic,[75] and a history of security
vulnerabilities in the primary Java VM implementation HotSpot.[76] Developers have criticized the
complexity and verbosity of the Java Persistence API (JPA), a standard part of Java EE. This has led
to increased adoption of higher-level abstractions like Spring Data JPA, which aims to simplify
database operations and reduce boilerplate code. The growing popularity of such frameworks
suggests limitations in the standard JPA implementation's ease-of-use for modern Java
development.

Class libraries

The Java Class Library is the standard library, developed to support application development in
Java. It is controlled by Oracle in cooperation with others through the Java Community Process
program.[77] Companies or individuals participating in this process can influence the design and
development of the APIs. This process has been a subject of controversy during the 2010s.[78] The
class library contains features such as:

The core libraries, which include:

Input/output (I/O or IO)[79] and non-blocking I/O (NIO), or IO/NIO[80]

Networking[81] (new user agent (HTTP client) since Java 11[82])

Reflective programming (reflection)

Concurrent computing (concurrency)[79]

Generics

Scripting, Compiler

Functional programming (Lambda, streaming)

 Collection libraries that implement data structures such as lists, dictionaries, trees, sets,
queues and double-ended queue, or stacks[83]

XML Processing (Parsing, Transforming, Validating) libraries

Security[84]

Internationalization and localization libraries[85]

The integration libraries, which allow the application writer to communicate with external
systems. These libraries include:
The Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) API for database access

Java Naming and Directory Interface (JNDI) for lookup and discovery

Java remote method invocation (RMI) and Common Object Request Broker Architecture
(CORBA) for distributed application development

Java Management Extensions (JMX) for managing and monitoring applications

User interface libraries, which include:

The (heavyweight, or native) Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT), which provides GUI
components, the means for laying out those components and the means for handling events
from those components

The (lightweight) Swing libraries, which are built on AWT but provide (non-native)
implementations of the AWT widgetry

APIs for audio capture, processing, and playback

JavaFX

A platform dependent implementation of the Java virtual machine that is the means by which the
bytecodes of the Java libraries and third-party applications are executed

Plugins, which enable applets to be run in web browsers

Java Web Start, which allows Java applications to be efficiently distributed to end users across
the Internet

Licensing and documentation

Documentation

Javadoc is a comprehensive documentation system, created by Sun Microsystems. It provides

developers with an organized system for documenting their code. Javadoc comments have an extra
asterisk at the beginning, i.e. the delimiters are /** and */ , whereas the normal multi-line
comments in Java are delimited by /* and */ , and single-line comments start with // .[86]

Implementations

Oracle Corporation owns the official implementation of the Java SE platform, due to its acquisition
of Sun Microsystems on January 27, 2010. This implementation is based on the original
implementation of Java by Sun. The Oracle implementation is available for Windows, macOS, Linux,
and Solaris. Because Java lacks any formal standardization recognized by Ecma International,
ISO/IEC, ANSI, or other third-party standards organizations, the Oracle implementation is the de
facto standard.

The Oracle implementation is packaged into two different distributions: The Java Runtime
Environment (JRE) which contains the parts of the Java SE platform required to run Java programs
and is intended for end users, and the Java Development Kit (JDK), which is intended for software
developers and includes development tools such as the Java compiler, Javadoc, Jar, and a
debugger. Oracle has also released GraalVM, a high performance Java dynamic compiler and
interpreter.

OpenJDK is another Java SE implementation that is licensed under the GNU GPL. The
implementation started when Sun began releasing the Java source code under the GPL. As of Java
SE 7, OpenJDK is the official Java reference implementation.

The goal of Java is to make all implementations of Java compatible. Historically, Sun's trademark
license for usage of the Java brand insists that all implementations be compatible. This resulted in
a legal dispute with Microsoft after Sun claimed that the Microsoft implementation did not support
Java remote method invocation (RMI) or Java Native Interface (JNI) and had added platform-
specific features of their own. Sun sued in 1997, and, in 2001, won a settlement of US$20 million, as
well as a court order enforcing the terms of the license from Sun.[87] As a result, Microsoft no longer
ships Java with Windows.

Platform-independent Java is essential to Java EE, and an even more rigorous validation is required
to certify an implementation. This environment enables portable server-side applications.

Use outside the Java platform

The Java programming language requires the presence of a software platform in order for compiled
programs to be executed.
Oracle supplies the Java platform for use with Java. The Android SDK is an alternative software
platform, used primarily for developing Android applications with its own GUI system.

Android

The Java language is a key pillar in Android, an open source mobile operating system. Although
Android, built on the Linux kernel, is written largely in C, the Android SDK uses the Java language as
the basis for Android applications but does not use any of its standard GUI, SE, ME or other
established Java standards.[88] The bytecode language supported by the Android SDK is
incompatible with Java bytecode and runs on its own virtual machine, optimized for low-memory
devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. Depending on the Android version, the
bytecode is either interpreted by the Dalvik virtual machine or compiled into native code by the
Android Runtime.

Android does not provide the full Java SE standard library, although the Android SDK does include
an independent implementation of a large subset of it. It supports Java 6 and some Java 7 features,
offering an implementation compatible with the standard library (Apache Harmony).

Controversy

The use of Java-related technology in Android led to a legal dispute between Oracle and Google. On
May 7, 2012, a San Francisco jury found that if APIs could be copyrighted, then Google had infringed
Oracle's copyrights by the use of Java in Android devices.[89] District Judge William Alsup ruled on
May 31, 2012, that APIs cannot be copyrighted,[90] but this was reversed by the United States Court
of Appeals for the Federal Circuit in May 2014.[91] On May 26, 2016, the district court decided in
favor of Google, ruling the copyright infringement of the Java API in Android constitutes fair use.[92]
In March 2018, this ruling was overturned by the Appeals Court, which sent down the case of
determining the damages to federal court in San Francisco.[93] Google filed a petition for writ of
certiorari with the Supreme Court of the United States in January 2019 to challenge the two rulings
that were made by the Appeals Court in Oracle's favor.[94] On April 5, 2021, the Court ruled 6–2 in
Google's favor, that its use of Java APIs should be considered fair use. However, the court refused
to rule on the copyrightability of APIs, choosing instead to determine their ruling by considering
Java's API copyrightable "purely for argument's sake."[95]

See also

C#
 C++ Computer
programming portal
Dalvik, used in old Android versions, replaced by non-JIT Android
Runtime

Java Heterogeneous Distributed Computing

List of Java APIs

List of Java frameworks

List of JVM languages

List of Java programming books

List of Java software and tools

List of Java virtual machines

Outline of the Java programming language

Comparison of C# and Java

Comparison of Java and C++

Comparison of programming languages

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External links

Java Software, Oracle ([Link]

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JDK builds, Adoptium ([Link]

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News and views from members of the Java team at Oracle ([Link]

OpenJDK Wiki ([Link]

Java Community Process ([Link]