Loaders and Linkers

Chapter 3

System Software
An introduction to systems programming

Leland L. Beck

Introduction

To execute an object program, we needs

Relocation, which modifies the object program so that it can be
loaded at an address different from the location originally specified

Linking, which combines two or more separate object programs

and supplies the information needed to allow references between them (Section 2.2.2)

Loading and Allocation, which allocates memory location and

brings the object program into memory for execution (Section 2.3.5)

Overview of Chapter 3

Type of loaders
assemble-and-go loader absolute loader (bootstrap loader) relocating loader (relative loader) direct linking loader

Design options
linkage editors dynamic linking bootstrap loaders

Assemble-and-go Loader

Characteristic
the object code is stored in memory after assembly single JUMP instruction

Advantage
simple, developing environment

Disadvantage
whenever the assembly program is to be executed, it has to be assembled again programs have to be coded in the same language

Design of an Absolute Loader

Absolute Loader
Advantage
Simple and efficient

Disadvantage
the need for programmer to specify the actual address difficult to use subroutine libraries

Program Logic
Next slice

Fig. 3.2 Algorithm for an absolute loader

Begin read Header record verify program name and length read first Text record while record type is not E do begin {if object code is in character form, convert into internal representation} move object code to specified location in memory read next object program record end jump to address specified in End record end
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Object Code Representation

Figure 3.1 (a)

each byte of assembled code is given using its hexadecimal representation in character form easy to read by human beings

In general
each byte of object code is stored as a single byte most machine store object programs in a binary form we must be sure that our file and device conventions do not cause some of the program bytes to be interpreted as control characters

A Simple Bootstrap Loader

Bootstrap Loader
When a computer is first tuned on or restarted, a special type of absolute loader, called bootstrap loader is executed This bootstrap loads the first program to be run by the computer -- usually an operating system

Example (SIC bootstrap loader)

The bootstrap itself begins at address 0 It loads the OS starting address 0x80 No header record or control information, the object code is consecutive bytes of memory

Fig. 3.3 SIC Bootstrap Loader Logic

Begin X=0x80 (the address of the next memory location to be loaded Loop AGETC (and convert it from the ASCII character code to the value of the hexadecimal digit) save the value in the high-order 4 bits of S AGETC combine the value to form one byte A (A+S) store the value (in A) to the address in register X XX+1 GETC Aread one character End if A=0x04 then jump to 0x80
0~9 : 48 A~F : 65

if A<48 then GETC A A-48 (0x30) if A<10 then return A A-7 (48+7=55) return
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Relocating Loaders

Motivation
efficient sharing of the machine with larger memory and when several independent programs are to be run together support the use of subroutine libraries efficiently

Two methods for specifying relocation

modification record (Fig. 3.4, 3.5) relocation bit (Fig. 3.6, 3.7)
each instruction is associated with one relocation bit these relocation bits in a Text record is gathered into bit masks

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Modification Record

For complex machines Also called RLD specification

Relocation and Linkage Directory
Modification record col 1: M col 2-7: relocation address col 8-9: length (halfbyte) col 10: flag (+/-) col 11-17: segment name

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Relocation Bit

For simple machines Relocation bit

0: no modification is necessary 1: modification is needed

Text record col 1: T col 2-7: starting address col 8-9: length (byte) col 10-12: relocation bits col 13-72: object code

Twelve-bit mask is used in each Text record

since each text record contains less than 12 words unused words are set to 0 any value that is to be modified during relocation must coincide with one of these 3-byte segments
e.g. line 210
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Program Linking

Goal
Resolve the problems with EXTREF and EXTDEF from different control sections

Linking
1. User, 2. Assembler, 3. Linking loader Example
Program in Fig. 3.8 and object code in Fig. 3.9 Use modification records for both relocation and linking
address constant external reference

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Program Linking Example

Label REF1 LISTA REF2 LISTB+4 REF3 ENDA-LISTA REF4 ENDA-LISTA+LISTC REF5 ENDC-LISTC-10 REF6 ENDC-LISTC+LISTA-1 REF7 ENDA-LISTA-(ENDB-LISTB) REF8 LISTB-LISTA Expression Program A Program B Program C LISTA, ENDA LISTB, ENDB LISTC, ENDC local, R, PC external local, A local, A external local, R local, A local, R external local, R, PC external external external external local, A local, R external external external local, R local, A local, A external external

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Program Linking Example

Fig. 3.10 Load address for control sections

PROGA PROGB PROGC 004000 004063 0040E2 63 7F 51

Load address for symbols

LISTA: PROGA+0040=4040 LISTB: PROGB+0060=40C3 LISTC: PROGC+0030=4112

REF4 in PROGA
ENDA-LISTA+LISTC=14+4112=4126 T0000540F000014FFFFF600003F000014FFFFC0 M00005406+LISTC
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Program Logic and Data Structure

Two Passes Logic

Pass 1: assign addresses to all external symbols Pass 2: perform the actual loading, relocation, and linking

ESTAB (external symbol table)

Control section Progam A Symbol LISTA ENDA Program B LISTB ENDB Program C LISTC ENDC Address 4000 4040 4054 4063 40C3 40D3 40E2 4112 4124 51
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Length 63

7F

Pass 1 Program Logic

Pass 1:
assign addresses to all external symbols

Variables
PROGADDR (program load address) from OS CSADDR (control section address) CSLTH (control section length) ESTAB

Fig. 3.11(a)
Process Define Record

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Pass 2 Program Logic

Pass 2:
perform the actual loading, relocation, and linking

Modification record
lookup the symbol in ESTAB

End record for a main program

transfer address

Fig. 3.11(b)
Process Text record and Modification record

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Improve Efficiency

Use local searching instead of multiple searches of ESTAB for the same symbol
assign a reference number to each external symbol the reference number is used in Modification records

Implementation
01: control section name other: external reference symbols

Example
Fig. 3.12

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Figure 3.12
Ref No. 1 2 3 4 5 Symbol PROGA LISTB ENDB LISTC ENDC Address 4000 40C3 40D3 4112 4124

PROGA
Ref No. 1 2 3 4 5 Symbol PROGB LISTA ENDA LISTC ENDC Address 4063 4040 4054 4112 4124 Ref No. 1 2 3 4 5 Symbol PROGC LISTA ENDA LISTB ENDB Address 4063 4040 4054 40C3 40D3

PROGB

PROGC
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Machine-Independent Loader Features

Automatic Library Search

Many linking loaders can automatically incorporate routines from a subprogram library into the program being loaded
A standard library Other libraries may be specified by control statements or by parameters to the loader

Also called automatic library call in some systems

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Automatic Library Search

Implementation
Linking loaders that support automatic library search must keep track of external symbols that are referred to , but not defined, in the primary input to the loader At the end of Pass 1, the symbols in ESTAB that remain undefined represented unresolved external references Then, the loader searches the library or libraries specified for routines that contain the definitions of these symbols Note that the subroutines fetched from a library in this way may themselves contain external references.
It is therefore necessary to repeat the library search process until all reference are resolved.

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Automatic Library Search

Implementation
The process allows the programmer to override the standard subroutines in the library by supplying his or her own routines

The libraries to be searched by the loader ordinarily contain assembled or compiled versions of the subroutines (i.e., object programs)
For efficient searching
Directory

Some operating systems can keep the directory for commonly used libraries permanently in memory

The same technique applies equally well to the resolution of external references to data items

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Loader Options

Many loaders allow the user to specify options that modify the standard processing Many loaders have a special command language
A separate input file to loader Embedded in the primary input stream In source program

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Loader Options

Examples of command language

1. INCLUDE program-name(library-name)
Direct the loader to read the designated object program from a library and treat it as if it were part of the primary loader input

2. DELETE csdect-name
Instruct the loader to delete the named control section(s) from the set of programs being loaded

3. CHANGE name1, name2

Cause the external symbol name1 to be changed to name2 wherever it appears in the object programs INCLUDE READ(UTLIB) INCLUDE WRITE(UTLIB) DELETE RDREC, WRREC CHANGE RDREC, READ CHANGE WRREC, WRITE
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Loader Options

Examples of command language

4. LIBRARY MYLIB
Automatic inclusion of library routines to satisfy external references Searched before the standard libraries

5. NOCALL STDDEV, PLOT, CORREL

To instruct the loader that these external references are to remain unsolved

6. Others
Output from the load, e.g., the map which includes control section names and adddresses The ability to specify the location at which execution is to begin Control whether or not the loader should attempt to execute the program if errors are detected during the load
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Loader Design Options

Linkage Editor
Perform linking prior to load time

Dynamic linking
Linking function is performed at execution time

Bootstrap loader
Be used to run stand-alone programs independent of the operating system or the system loader

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Linkage Editors

The essential difference between a linkage editor and a linking loader

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Linkage Editors

A linking loaders performs

All linking and relocation operations Automatic library search Loads the linked program directly into memory for execution

A linkage editor
Produces a linked version of program (often called a load module or an executable image), which is written to a file or library for later execution A simple relocating loader can be used to load the linked version of program into memory
The loading can be accomplished in one pass with no external symbol table required

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Linkage Editors

A linkage editor
Resolution of external references and library searching are only performed once In the linked version of programs
All external references are resolved, and relocation is indicated by some mechanism such as modification records or a bit mask

External references is often retained in the linked program

To allow subsequent relinking of the program to replace control sections, modify external references, etc.

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Linkage Editors

Linkage editors can perform many useful functions besides simply preparing an object program for execution
1. The linkage editor can be used to replace the subroutines in the linked version
INCLUDE DELETE INCLUDE REPLACE PLANNER(PROGLIB) PROJECT PROJECT(NEWLIB) PLANNER(PROGLIB)

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Linkage Editors
2. Linkage editors can also be used to build packages of subroutines or other control sections that are generally used together
It could be used to combine the appropriate subroutines into a package with a command sequence
INCLUDE INCLUDE INCLUDE INCLUDE INCLUDE INCLUDE . . . SAVE READR(FTNLIB) WRITER(FTNLIB) BLOCK(FTNLIB) DEBLOCK(FTNLIB) ENCODE(FTNLIB) DECODE(FTNLIB)

FTNIO(SUBLIB)
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Linkage Editors
3. Linkage editors often allow the user to specify that external references are not to be resolved by automatic library search
Only the external references between user-written routines would be resolved

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Dynamic Linking

Postpone the linking function until execution time

A subroutine is loaded and linked to the rest of the program when it is first called
Dynamic linking, dynamic loading, or load on call

Allow several executing programs to share one copy of a subroutine or library In object-oriented system, it allows the implementation of the object and its methods to be determined at the time the program is run Dynamic linking provides the ability to load the routines only when they are needed

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Dynamically loaded must be called via an operating system service request Load-and-call service
a) OS examines its inernal tables to determine whether or not the routine is already loaded b) Routine is loaded from library c) Control is passed from OS to the called subroutine d) Subroutine is finished e) Calling to a subroutine which is already in memory

Binding of the name to an actuall address is delayed from load time until execution time
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Bootstrap Loaders

Given an idle computer with no program in memory, how do we get things started?
With the machine empty and idle, there is no need for program relocation
Some early computers required the operator to enter into memory the object code for an absolute loader, using switches on the computer console One some computer, an absolute loader program is permanently resident in a ROM A built-in hardware function that reads a fixed-length record form some device into memory at a fixed location

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