Discrete Mathematics
Chapter 1 Logic and proofs
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Logic
Logic = the study of correct reasoning Use of logic
In mathematics:
to prove theorems to prove that programs do what they are supposed to do
In computer science:
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Section 1.1 Propositions
A proposition is a statement or sentence that can be determined to be either true or false. Examples:
John is a programmer" is a proposition I wish I were wise is not a proposition
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Connectives
If p and q are propositions, new compound propositions can be formed by using connectives Most common connectives:
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Conjunction AND. Inclusive disjunction OR Exclusive disjunction OR Negation Implication Double implication
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Symbol ^ Symbol v Symbol v Symbol ~ Symbol Symbol
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Truth table of conjunction
The truth values of compound propositions can be described by truth tables. Truth table of conjunction
p T T F F
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q T F T F
p^q T F F F
p ^ q is true only when both p and q are true.
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Example
Let p = Tigers are wild animals Let q = Chicago is the capital of Illinois p ^ q = "Tigers are wild animals and Chicago is the capital of Illinois" p ^ q is false. Why?
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Truth table of disjunction
The truth table of (inclusive) disjunction is
p T T F F q T F T F pvq T T T F
p q is false only when both p and q are false
Example: p = "John is a programmer", q = "Mary is a lawyer" p v q = "John is a programmer or Mary is a lawyer"
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Exclusive disjunction
Either p or q (but not both), in symbols p q
p T T F F q T F T F pvq F T T F
p q is true only when p is true and q is false, or p is false and q is true.
Example: p = "John is programmer, q = "Mary is a lawyer" p v q = "Either John is a programmer or Mary is a lawyer"
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Negation
Negation of p: in symbols ~p
p T F ~p F T
~p is false when p is true, ~p is true when p is false
Example: p = "John is a programmer" ~p = "It is not true that John is a programmer"
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More compound statements
Let p, q, r be simple statements We can form other compound statements, such as
(pq)^r p(q^r) (~p)(~q) (pq)^(~r) and many others
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Example: truth table of (pq)^r
p T T q T T r T F (p q) ^ r T F
T
T F
F
F T
T
F T
T
F T
F F
F
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T F
F
F T
F
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F F
F
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1.2 Conditional propositions and logical equivalence
A conditional proposition is of the form If p then q In symbols: p q Example:
p = " John is a programmer" q = " Mary is a lawyer " p q = If John is a programmer then Mary is a lawyer"
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Truth table of p q
p
T T F F
q
T F T F
pq
T F T T
p q is true when both p and q are true or when p is false
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Hypothesis and conclusion
In a conditional proposition p q, p is called the antecedent or hypothesis q is called the consequent or conclusion If "p then q" is considered logically the same as "p only if q"
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Necessary and sufficient
A necessary condition is expressed by the conclusion. A sufficient condition is expressed by the hypothesis.
Example:
If John is a programmer then Mary is a lawyer" Necessary condition: Mary is a lawyer Sufficient condition: John is a programmer
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Logical equivalence
Two propositions are said to be logically equivalent if their truth tables are identical.
p T q T ~p q T pq T
T F F
F T F
F T T
F T T
Example: ~p q is logically equivalent to p q
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Converse
The converse of p q is q p
p T q T pq T qp T
T F F
F T F
F T T
T F T
These two propositions are not logically equivalent
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Contrapositive
The contrapositive of the proposition p q is ~q ~p.
p q pq ~q ~p
T
T F F
T
F T F
T
F T T
T
F T T
They are logically equivalent.
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Double implication
The double implication p if and only if q is defined in symbols as p q
p T T F q T F T pq T F F (p q) ^ (q p) T F F
p q is logically equivalent to (p q)^(q p)
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Tautology
A proposition is a tautology if its truth table contains only true values for every case
Example: p p v q
p
T T F F
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q
T F T F
ppvq
T T T T
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Contradiction
A proposition is a tautology if its truth table contains only false values for every case
Example: p ^ ~p
p
T F
p ^ (~p)
F F
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De Morgans laws for logic
The following pairs of propositions are logically equivalent: ~ (p q) and (~p)^(~q) ~ (p ^ q) and (~p) (~q)
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1.3 Quantifiers
A propositional function P(x) is a statement involving a variable x For example:
P(x): 2x is an even integer
For example, x is an element of the set of integers
x is an element of a set D
D is called the domain of P(x)
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Domain of a propositional function
In the propositional function P(x): 2x is an even integer, the domain D of P(x) must be defined, for instance D = {integers}. D is the set where the x's come from.
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For every and for some
Most statements in mathematics and computer science use terms such as for every and for some. For example:
For every triangle T, the sum of the angles of T is 180 degrees. For every integer n, n is less than p, for some prime number p.
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Universal quantifier
One can write P(x) for every x in a domain D
In symbols: x P(x)
is called the universal quantifier
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Truth of as propositional function
The statement x P(x) is
True if P(x) is true for every x D False if P(x) is not true for some x D
Example: Let P(n) be the propositional function n2 + 2n is an odd integer n D = {all integers} P(n) is true only when n is an odd integer, false if n is an even integer.
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Existential quantifier
For some x D, P(x) is true if there exists an element x in the domain D for which P(x) is true. In symbols: x, P(x)
The symbol is called the existential quantifier.
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Counterexample
The universal statement x P(x) is false if x D such that P(x) is false.
The value x that makes P(x) false is called a counterexample to the statement x P(x).
Example: P(x) = "every x is a prime number", for every integer x. But if x = 4 (an integer) this x is not a primer number. Then 4 is a counterexample to P(x) being true.
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Generalized De Morgans laws for Logic
If P(x) is a propositional function, then each pair of propositions in a) and b) below have the same truth values: a) ~(x P(x)) and x: ~P(x)
"It is not true that for every x, P(x) holds" is equivalent to "There exists an x for which P(x) is not true"
b) ~(x P(x)) and x: ~P(x)
"It is not true that there exists an x for which P(x) is true" is equivalent to "For all x, P(x) is not true"
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Summary of propositional logic
In order to prove the universally quantified statement x P(x) is true
In order to prove the universally quantified statement x P(x) is false
It is not enough to show P(x) true for some x D You must show P(x) is true for every x D
It is enough to exhibit some x D for which P(x) is false This x is called the counterexample to the statement x P(x) is true
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1.4 Proofs
A mathematical system consists of Undefined terms Definitions Axioms
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Undefined terms
Undefined terms are the basic building blocks of a mathematical system. These are words that are accepted as starting concepts of a mathematical system.
Example: in Euclidean geometry we have undefined terms such as Point Line
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Definitions
A definition is a proposition constructed from undefined terms and previously accepted concepts in order to create a new concept.
Example. In Euclidean geometry the following are definitions: Two triangles are congruent if their vertices can be paired so that the corresponding sides are equal and so are the corresponding angles. Two angles are supplementary if the sum of their measures is 180 degrees.
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Axioms
An axiom is a proposition accepted as true without proof within the mathematical system. There are many examples of axioms in mathematics:
Example: In Euclidean geometry the following are axioms
Given two distinct points, there is exactly one line that contains them. Given a line and a point not on the line, there is exactly one line through the point which is parallel to the line.
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Theorems
A theorem is a proposition of the form p q which must be shown to be true by a sequence of logical steps that assume that p is true, and use definitions, axioms and previously proven theorems.
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Lemmas and corollaries
A lemma is a small theorem which is used to prove a bigger theorem. A corollary is a theorem that can be proven to be a logical consequence of another theorem.
Example from Euclidean geometry: "If the three sides of a triangle have equal length, then its angles also have equal measure."
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Types of proof
A proof is a logical argument that consists of a series of steps using propositions in such a way that the truth of the theorem is established. Direct proof: p q
A direct method of attack that assumes the truth of proposition p, axioms and proven theorems so that the truth of proposition q is obtained.
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Indirect proof
The
method of proof by contradiction of a theorem p q consists of the following steps:
1. Assume p is true and q is false 2. Show that ~p is also true. 3. Then we have that p ^ (~p) is true. 4. But this is impossible, since the statement p ^ (~p) is always false. There is a contradiction! 5. So, q cannot be false and therefore it is true.
OR:
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show that the contrapositive (~q)(~p) is true.
Since (~q) (~p) is logically equivalent to p q, then the theorem is proved.
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Valid arguments
Deductive reasoning: the process of reaching a conclusion q from a sequence of propositions p1, p2, , pn. The propositions p1, p2, , pn are called premises or hypothesis. The proposition q that is logically obtained through the process is called the conclusion.
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Rules of inference (1)
1. Law of detachment or modus ponens
2. Modus tollens
pq p Therefore, q
pq ~q Therefore, ~p
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Rules of inference (2)
3. Rule of Addition
p Therefore, p q
5. Rule of conjunction
4. Rule of simplification
p q Therefore, p ^ q
p^q Therefore, p
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Rules of inference (3)
6. Rule of hypothetical syllogism pq qr Therefore, p r
7. Rule of disjunctive syllogism pq ~p Therefore, q
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Rules of inference for quantified statements
1. Universal instantiation 3. Existential instantiation xD, P(x) x D, P(x) dD Therefore P(d) for some d D Therefore P(d) 2. Universal generalization 4. Existential generalization P(d) for some d D P(d) for any d D Therefore x, P(x) Therefore x, P(x)
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1.5 Resolution proofs
Due to J. A. Robinson (1965) A clause is a compound statement with terms separated by or, and each term is a single variable or the negation of a single variable
Example: p q (~r) is a clause (p ^ q) r (~s) is not a clause
Hypothesis and conclusion are written as clauses Only one rule:
pq ~p r Therefore, q r
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1.6 Mathematical induction
Useful for proving statements of the form n A S(n) where N is the set of positive integers or natural numbers, A is an infinite subset of N S(n) is a propositional function
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Mathematical Induction: strong form
Suppose we want to show that for each positive integer n the statement S(n) is either true or false.
1. Verify that S(1) is true. 2. Let n be an arbitrary positive integer. Let i be a positive integer such that i < n. 3. Show that S(i) true implies that S(i+1) is true, i.e. show S(i) S(i+1). 4. Then conclude that S(n) is true for all positive integers n. 2/23/2013 Prof. Mohammed Gulam Ahamad
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Mathematical induction: terminology
Basis step: Inductive step:
Conclusion:
Verify that S(1) is true. Assume S(i) is true. Prove S(i) S(i+1). Therefore S(n) is true for all positive integers n.
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