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Variable-Length
Subnet Masks
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What Is a Variable-Length
Subnet Mask?
• Subnet 172.16.14.0/24 is divided into smaller subnets:
– Subnet with one mask (/27)
– Then further subnet one of the unused /27 subnets into
multiple /30 subnets
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Calculating VLSMs
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A Working VLSM Example
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What Is Route
Summarization?
• Routing protocols can summarize addresses of several
networks into one address
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Summarizing Within an Octet
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Summarizing Addresses in a VLSM-
Designed Network
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Implementation Considerations
• Multiple IP addresses must have the same
highest-order bits.
• Routing decisions are made based on the
entire address.
• Routing protocols must carry the prefix
(subnet mask) length.
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Route Summarization Operation in
Cisco Routers
192.16.5.33 /32 Host
192.16.5.32 /27 Subnet
192.16.5.0 /24 Network
192.16.0.0 /16 Block of Networks
0.0.0.0 /0 Default
• Supports host-specific routes, blocks of networks,
default routes
• Routers use the longest match
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Summarizing Routes in a
Discontiguous Network
• RIPv1 and IGRP do not advertise subnets, and therefore
cannot support discontiguous subnets.
• OSPF, EIGRP, and RIPv2 can advertise subnets, and
therefore can support discontiguous subnets.
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Link-State and Balanced Hybrid
Routing
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Link-State Routing Protocols
• After initial flood, pass small event-triggered link-state
updates to all other routers
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Link-State Network Hierarchy
Example
• Minimizes routing table entries
• Localizes impact of a topology change within
an area
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Link-State Routing
Protocol Algorithms
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Benefits of Link-State Routing
• Fast convergence: changes are reported
immediately by the source affected.
• Robustness against routing loops:
– Routers know the topology.
– Link-state packets are sequenced and
acknowledged.
• By careful (hierarchical) network design, you
can utilize resources optimally.
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Caveats of Link-State Routing
• Significant demands for resources:
– Memory (three tables: adjacency, topology, forwarding)
– CPU (Dijkstra’s algorithm can be intensive, especially
when a lot of instabilities are present.)
• Requires very strict network design (when more areas—
area routing)
• Problems with partitioning of areas
• Configuration generally simple but can be complex
when tuning various parameters and when the design is
complex
• Troubleshooting easier than in distance vector routing
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Drawbacks to Link-State Routing
Protocols
• Initial discovery may cause flooding.
• Memory- and processor-intensive.
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Enabling OSPF
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Introducing OSPF
•Open standard
•Shortest path first (SPF) algorithm
•Link-state routing protocol (vs. distance vector)
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OSPF as a Link-State Protocol
• OSPF propagates link-state advertisements
rather than routing table updates.
• LSAs are flooded to all OSPF routers in the area.
• The OSPF link-state database is pieced together
from the LSAs generated by the OSPF routers.
• OSPF uses the SPF algorithm to calculate the
shortest path to a destination.
– Link = router interface
– State = description of an interface and its
relationship to neighboring routers
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OSPF Hierarchical Routing
• Consists of areas and autonomous systems
• Minimizes routing update traffic
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Shortest Path First Algorithm
• Places each router at the root of a tree and calculates the
shortest path to each destination based on the cumulative cost
• Cost = 108/bandwidth (bps)
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Configuring Single Area OSPF
Router(config)#router ospf process-id
• Defines OSPF as the IP routing protocol
config-router)#network address mask area area-id
• Assigns networks to a specific OSPF area
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OSPF Configuration Example
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Configuring Loopback Interfaces
Router ID:
• Number by which the router is known to OSPF
• Default: The highest IP address on an active interface at the
moment of OSPF process startup
• Can be overridden by a loopback interface: Highest IP address
of any active loopback interface
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Verifying the OSPF Configuration
Router#show ip protocols
• Verifies that OSPF is configured
Router#show ip route
• Displays all the routes learned by the router
Router#show ip ospf interface
• Displays area-ID and adjacency information
Router#show ip ospf neighbor
• Displays OSPF-neighbor information on a per-interface basis
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OSPF debug commands
Router#debug ip ospf events
OSPF:hello with invalid timers on interface Ethernet0
hello interval received 10 configured 10
net mask received 255.255.255.0 configured 255.255.255.0
dead interval received 40 configured 30
Router# debug ip ospf packet
OSPF: rcv. v:2 t:1 l:48 rid:200.0.0.117
aid:0.0.0.0 chk:6AB2 aut:0 auk:
Router#debug ip ospf packet
OSPF: rcv. v:2 t:1 l:48 rid:200.0.0.116
aid:0.0.0.0 chk:0 aut:2 keyid:1 seq:0x0
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Enabling EIGRP
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Balanced Hybrid Routing
• Shares attributes of both distance vector
and link-state routing
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Introducing EIGRP
EIGRP supports:
• Rapid convergence
• Reduced bandwidth usage
• Multiple network-layer protocols
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EIGRP Terminology
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Comparing EIGRP and IGRP
• Similar metric
• Same load balancing
• Improved convergence time
• Reduced network overhead
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Configuring EIGRP
Router(config)#router eigrp autonomous-system
• Defines EIGRP as the IP routing protocol
outer(config-router)#network network-number
• Selects participating attached networks
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EIGRP Configuration Example
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Verifying the EIGRP Configuration
Router#show ip eigrp neighbors
• Displays the neighbors discovered by IP EIGRP
Router#show ip eigrp topology
• Displays the IP EIGRP topology table
Router#show ip route eigrp
• Displays current EIGRP entries in the routing table
Router#show ip protocols
• Displays the parameters and current state of the active
routing protocol process
Router#show ip eigrp traffic
• Displays the number of IP EIGRP packets sent and received
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debug ip eigrp Command
Router#debug ip eigrp
IP-EIGRP: Processing incoming UPDATE packet
IP-EIGRP: Ext 192.168.3.0 255.255.255.0 M 386560 - 256000 130560 SM 360960 -
256000 104960
IP-EIGRP: Ext 192.168.0.0 255.255.255.0 M 386560 - 256000 130560 SM 360960 -
256000 104960
IP-EIGRP: Ext 192.168.3.0 255.255.255.0 M 386560 - 256000 130560 SM 360960 -
256000 104960
IP-EIGRP: 172.69.43.0 255.255.255.0, - do advertise out Ethernet0/1
IP-EIGRP: Ext 172.69.43.0 255.255.255.0 metric 371200 - 256000 115200
IP-EIGRP: 192.135.246.0 255.255.255.0, - do advertise out Ethernet0/1
IP-EIGRP: Ext 192.135.246.0 255.255.255.0 metric 46310656 - 45714176 596480
IP-EIGRP: 172.69.40.0 255.255.255.0, - do advertise out Ethernet0/1
IP-EIGRP: Ext 172.69.40.0 255.255.255.0 metric 2272256 - 1657856 614400
IP-EIGRP: 192.135.245.0 255.255.255.0, - do advertise out Ethernet0/1
IP-EIGRP: Ext 192.135.245.0 255.255.255.0 metric 40622080 - 40000000 622080
IP-EIGRP: 192.135.244.0 255.255.255.0, - do advertise out Ethernet0/1
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Summary
• EIGRP is an interior gateway protocol suited for
many different topologies and media.
• EIGRP is an enhanced version of the IGRP
developed by Cisco, with improved convergence
properties and operating efficiency over IGRP.
• Use the router eigrp and network commands to
create an EIGRP routing process.
• Use the show ip eigrp commands to display
information about your EIGRP configuration.
• To display information on EIGRP packets, use the
debug ip eigrp privileged EXEC command.
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