Unit-2
PHOTOVOLTAIC ENERGY CONVERSION
How solar cells work
A typical crystalline silicon solar cell
Electrical current generated in the semiconductor is extracted by contacts to the front and rear of the cell. The top contact structure which must allow light to pass through is made in the form of widely-spaced thin metal strips (usually called fingers) that supply current to a larger bus bar. The cell is covered with a thin layer of dielectric material - the anti-reflection coating, ARC - to minimize light reflection from the top surface.
Energy levels in a p-n junction
Solar cells are essentially semiconductor junctions under illumination. Light generates electron-hole pairs on both sides of the junction, in the n-type emitter and in the p-type base. The generated electrons (from the base) and holes (from the emitter) then diffuse to the junction and are swept away by the electric field, thus producing electric current across the device. p-n junction therefore separates the carriers with opposite charge, and transforms the generation current between the bands into an electric current across the p-n junction.
I-V characteristics
Ideal equivalent circuit of a solar cell a current source and a diode
Practical eqvt.circuit
Practicaly,Isc is not equal to light generated electric current. Internal vol.drop IRs is included in terminal voltage
Cell generates no power in short-circuit (when current Isc is produced) or opencircuit (when cell generates voltage Voc). Cell delivers max.power Pmax when operating at a point on the characteristic where the product IV is maximum. Position of the maximum power point represents the largest area of the rectangle shown.
As a measure for solar cell quality fillfactor, FF is used. It can be calculated with the following equation:
Where, IMPP - MPP current (A) VMPP - MPP voltage (V) Isc - short circuit current (A) Voc - open circuit voltage (V)
P-V characteristic
Effect of Insolation variation
Insolation keeps on varying Both Isc and Vsc increase with increase in the intensity of radiation (spectral content, temp.content and all other factors remain same) Photo generated current depends directly on insolation Isc depends linearly on insolation. Vsc depends logarithmically on insolation.
Effect of Insolation variation
Increasing Insolation
Effect of Temperature variation
PV cell converts only a small fraction of irradiance into electricity, balance is converted to heat. If temp. is increased, there is a marginal increase in cell current, but a marked reduction in cell voltage. Increase in temp. causes
reduction in band gapincrease in photo gen. current Increases reverse saturation current cell vol. decreases(~2.2mV/deg. rise in temp) Fill factor decreases slightly
Effect of Temperature variation
Increasing Temp.
Maximum Power Point Tracking
MPPT is an electronic system that operates the PV modules in a manner that allows the modules to produce all the power they are capable of. MPPT is not a mechanical tracking system that physically moves the modules to make them point more directly at the sun. MPPT is a fully electronic system that varies the electrical operating point of the modules so that the modules are able to deliver max available power. Additional power harvested from the modules is then made available as increased battery charge current
I-V curve
PV cell has an approximately exponential relationship between current and voltage.
Maximum power point
Power P=V*I. From basic circuit theory, the power delivered from or to a device is optimized where the derivative (graphically, the slope) dI/dV of the I-V curve is equal and opposite the I/V ratio (where dP/dV=0). This is known as the maximum power point (MPP) and corresponds to the "knee" of the curve.
Maximum power point algorithms
Various algorithms may perform MPPT. Important factors to consider when choosing a technique to perform MPPT are:
1) the ability of an algorithm to detect multiple maxima, 2) costs, and 3) convergence speed.
Maximum power point algorithms
Controllers usually follow one of three types of strategies to optimize the power output of an array. They are:
1) Perturb and observe 2) Incremental conductance 3) Constant voltage
1- Perturb and observe (P&O)
P&O method modify the operating voltage or current of the photovoltaic panel until we obtain maximum power from it. For eg, if increasing the voltage to a panel increases the power output of the panel, the system continues increasing the operating voltage until the power output begins to decrease. Once this happens, the voltage is decreased to get back towards the MPP. Thus, the power output value oscillates around a MPP and never stabilizes.
Flow chart of P&O method
Advantages: P&O is simple to implement and thus can be implemented quickly. Drawbacks: power obtained oscillates around the MPP in steady state operation it can track in the wrong direction under rapidly varying irradiance levels and load levels step size (magnitude of the change in the operating voltage) determines both the speed of convergence to the MPP and the range of oscillation around the MPP at steady state operation.
2) Incremental conductance (IC)
Incremental conductance (IC) locates the maximum power point when: This condition simply states that the maximum power point is located when the instantaneous conductance ,is equal to the negative value of incremental conductance,
Incremental conductance (IC)
MPP is found by comparing the instantaneous conductance (I/V) to the incremental conductance (I/V). Once we have the MPP, the system maintains this power point unless a change in V or I occurs (caused by an external event). If this happens, the algorithm will find the new MPP. The controller maintains this voltage until the irradiation changes and the process is repeated.
Flow chart of IC method
Advantage:
it can reach and maintain the MPP without losing some efficiency by having to oscillate around this point. Under rapidly changing conditions this algorithm tracks more accurately than the P&O method
Disadvantage:
it can take longer to reach the MPP because the increased computation required decreases the number of perturbations to the operating voltage and current possible in a set amount of time.
3) Constant voltage (CV)
The basis for CV algorithm is the observation from IV curves that the ratio of the arrays maximum power voltage, VMPP, to its opencircuit voltage, VOC, is approximately constant;
(eqn-1)
Flow chart of CV method
The solar array is temporarily isolated from the MPPT, and a VOC measurement is taken. Next, the MPPT calculates the correct operating point using Eqn 1 and the preset value of K, and adjusts the arrays voltage until the calculated VMPP is reached. This operation is repeated periodically to track the position of the MPP.
Advantage:
Extremely simple method Constant voltage control can be easily implemented with analog hardware
Disadvantage:
MPPT tracking efficiency is low relative to those of other algorithms It is difficult to choose the optimal value of the constant K Measuring the open-circuit voltage requires a momentary interruption of PV power
