Applications of Number
Theory
CS 202
Epp section 10.4
Aaron Bloomfield
About this lecture set
I want to introduce RSA
The most commonly used cryptographic algorithm
today
Much of the underlying theory we will not be able
to get to
Its beyond the scope of this course
Much of why this all works wont be taught
Its just an introduction to how it works
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Private key cryptography
The function and/or key to encrypt/decrypt is a
secret
(Hopefully) only known to the sender and recipient
The same key encrypts and decrypts
How do you get the key to the recipient?
Public key cryptography
Everybody has a key that encrypts and a
separate key that decrypts
They are not interchangable!
The encryption key is made public
The decryption key is kept private
Public key cryptography goals
Key generation should be relatively easy
Encryption should be easy
Decryption should be easy
With the right key!
Cracking should be very hard
Is that number prime?
Use the Fermat primality test
Given:
n: the number to test for primality
k: the number of times to test (the certainty)
The algorithm is:
repeat k times:
pick a randomly in the range [1, n1]
if an1 mod n 1 then return composite
return probably prime
Is that number prime?
The algorithm is:
repeat k times:
pick a randomly in the range [1, n1]
if an1 mod n 1 then return composite
return probably prime
Let n = 105
Iteration 1: a = 92: 92104 mod 105 = 1
Iteration 2: a = 84: 84104 mod 105 = 21
Therefore, 105 is composite
Is that number prime?
The algorithm is:
repeat k times:
pick a randomly in the range [1, n1]
if an1 mod n 1 then return composite
return probably prime
Let n = 101
Iteration 1: a = 55: 55100 mod 101 = 1
Iteration 2: a = 60: 60100 mod 101 = 1
Iteration 3: a = 14: 14100 mod 101 = 1
Iteration 4: a = 73: 73100 mod 101 = 1
At this point, 101 has a ()4 = 1/16 chance of still
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being composite
More on the Fermat primality test
Each iteration halves the probability that the number is a
composite
Probability = ()k
If k = 100, probability its a composite is () 100 = 1 in 1.2 1030
that the number is composite
Greater chance of having a hardware error!
Thus, k = 100 is a good value
However, this is not certain!
There are known numbers that are composite but will always
report prime by this test
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermat_primality_test
Googles recruitment campaign
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RSA
Stands for the inventors: Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir
and Len Adleman
Three parts:
Key generation
Encrypting a message
Decrypting a message
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Key generation steps
1. Choose two random large prime numbers p q, and
n = p*q
2. Choose an integer 1 < e < n which is relatively prime to
(p-1)(q-1)
3. Compute d such that d * e 1 (mod (p-1)(q-1))
Rephrased: d*e mod (p-1)(q-1) = 1
4. Destroy all records of p and q
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Key generation, step 1
Choose two random large prime numbers p q
In reality, 2048 bit numbers are recommended
Thats 617 digits
From last lecture: chance of a random odd 2048 bit
number being prime is about 1/710
We can compute if a number is prime relatively quickly via
the Fermat primality test
We choose p = 107 and q = 97
Compute n = p*q
n = 10379
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Key generation, step 1
Java code to find a big prime number:
BigInteger prime = new BigInteger
(numBits, certainty, random);
The number of
bits of the prime
Certainty that the
number is a prime
The random number
generator
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Key generation, step 1
Java code to find a big prime number:
import java.math.*;
import java.util.*;
class BigPrime {
static int numDigits = 617;
static int certainty = 100;
static final double LOG_2 = Math.log(10)/Math.log(2);
static int numBits = (int) (numDigits * LOG_2);
public static void main (String args[]) {
Random random = new Random();
BigInteger prime = new BigInteger (numBits, certainty,
random);
System.out.println (prime);
}
}
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Key generation, step 1
How long does this take?
Keep in mind this is Java!
These tests done on a 850 Mhz Pentium machine
Average of 100 trials (certainty = 100)
200 digits (664 bits): about 1.5 seconds
617 digits (2048 bits): about 75 seconds
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Key generation, step 1
Practical considerations
p and q should not be too close together
(p-1) and (q-1) should not have small prime factors
Use a good random number generator
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Key generation, step 2
Choose an integer 1 < e < n which is relatively
prime to (p-1)(q-1)
There are algorithms to do this efficiently
We arent going over them in this course
Easy way to do this: make e be a prime number
It only has to be relatively prime to (p-1)(q-1), but can
be fully prime
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Key generation, step 2
Recall that p = 107 and q = 97
(p-1)(q-1) = 106*96 = 10176 = 26*3*53
We choose e = 85
85 = 5*17
gcd (85, 10176) = 1
Thus, 85 and 10176 are relatively prime
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Key generation, step 3
Compute d such that:
d * e 1 (mod (p-1)(q-1))
Rephrased: d*e mod (p-1)(q-1) = 1
There are algorithms to do this efficiently
We arent going over them in this course
We choose d = 4669
4669*85 mod 10176 = 1
Use the script at
http://www.cs.virginia.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/asb/modpow
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Key generation, step 3
Java code to find d:
import java.math.*;
class FindD {
public static void main (String args[]) {
BigInteger pq = new BigInteger("10176");
BigInteger e = new BigInteger ("85");
System.out.println (e.modInverse(pq));
}
}
Result: 4669
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Key generation, step 4
Destroy all records of p and q
If we know p and q, then we can compute the
private encryption key from the public decryption
key
d * e 1 (mod (p-1)(q-1))
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The keys
We have n = p*q = 10379, e = 85, and d = 4669
The public key is (n,e) = (10379, 85)
The private key is (n,d) = (10379, 4669)
Thus, n is not private
Only d is private
In reality, d and e are 600 (or so) digit numbers
Thus n is a 1200 (or so) digit number
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Encrypting messages
To encode a message:
1. Encode the message m into a number
2. Split the number into smaller numbers m < n
3. Use the formula c = me mod n
c is the ciphertext, and m is the message
Java code to do the last step:
m.modPow (e, n)
Where the object m is the BigInteger to encrypt
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Encrypting messages example
1.
Encode the message into a number
String is Go Cavaliers!!
Modified ASCII codes:
2.
41 81 02 37 67 88 67 78 75 71 84 85 03 03
Split the number into numbers < n
3.
Recall that n = 10379
4181 0237 6788 6778 7571 8485 0303
Use the formula c = me mod n
418185 mod 10379 = 4501
023785 mod 10379 = 2867
678885 mod 10379 = 4894
Etc
Encrypted message:
4501 2867 4894 0361 3630 4496 6720
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Encrypting RSA messages
Formula
is c = me mod n
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Decrypting messages
1. Use the formula m = cd mod n on each number
2. Split the number
character numbers
into
individual
ASCII
3. Decode the message into a string
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Decrypting messages example
Encrypted message:
1.
4501 2867 4894 0361 3630 4496 6720
Use the formula m = cd mod n on each number
2.
45014669 mod 10379 = 4181
28674669 mod 10379 = 0237
48944669 mod 10379 = 6788
Etc
Split the numbers into individual characters
3.
41 81 02 37 67 88 67 78 75 71 84 85 03 03
Decode the message into a string
Modified ASCII codes:
41 81 02 37 67 88 67 78 75 71 84 85 03 03
Retrieved String is Go Cavaliers!!
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modPow computation
1. How to compute c = me mod n or m = cd mod n?
Example: 45014669 mod 10379 = 4181
Use the script at
http://www.cs.virginia.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/asb/modpow
Other means:
Java: use the BigInteger.modPow() method
Perl: use the bmodpow function in the BigInt library
Etc
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Why this works
m = cd mod n
c = me mod n
cd (me)d med (mod n)
Recall that:
ed 1 (mod p-1)
ed 1 (mod q-1)
Thus,
med m (mod p)
med m (mod q)
med m (mod pq)
med m (mod n)
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Cracking a message
In order to decrypt a message, we must compute m = cd
mod n
n is known (part of the public key)
c is known (the ciphertext)
e is known (the encryption key)
Thus, we must compute d with no other information
Recall: choose an integer 1 < e < n which is relatively prime to
(p-1)(q-1)
Recall: Compute d such that: d*e mod (p-1)(q-1) = 1
Thus, we must factor the composite n into its component
primes
There is no efficient way to do this!
We can, very easily, tell that n is composite, but we cant tell what
its factors are
Once n is factored into p and q, we compute d as above
Then we can decrypt c to obtain m
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Cracking a message example
In order to decrypt a message, we must compute m = cd
mod n
n = 10379
c is the ciphertext being cracked
e = 85
In order to determine d, we need to factor n
d*e mod (p-1)(q-1) = 1
We factor n into p and q: 97 and 107
This would not have been feasible with two large prime
factors!!!
d * 85 (mod (96)(106)) = 1
We then compute d as above, and crack the message
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Signing a message
Recall that we computed:
d*e mod (p-1)(q-1) = 1
Note that d and e are interchangable!
You can use either for the encryption key
You can encrypt with either key!
Thus, you must use the other key to decrypt
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Signing a message
To sign a message:
1. Write a message, and determine the MD5 hash
2. Encrypt the hash with your private (encryption) key
3. Anybody can verify that you created the message
because ONLY the public (encryption) key can
decrypt the hash
4. The hash is then verified against the message
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PGP and GnuPG
Two applications which implement the RSA
algorithm
GnuPG Is open-source (thus its free)
PGP was first, and written by Phil Zimmerman
The US govt didnt like PGP
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The US govt and war
munitions
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How to crack PGP
Factoring n is not feasible
Thus, cracking PGP is done by other means
Intercepting the private key
Hacking into the computer, stealing the computer, etc.
Man-in-the-middle attack (next 2 slides)
Etc.
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Man-in-the-middle attack:
Normal RSA communication
What is your public key?
My public key is 12345
What is your public key?
My public key is 67890
Heres message encrypted with 12345
Heres a response encrypted with 67890
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What is your public key?
My public key is abcde
What
Blackishas
yourthe
public key?
private decryption
My
key is 67890
keypublic
for abcde
What is your public key?
My public key is 12345
What is your public key?
My public key is vwxyz
Heres message encrypted w/ abcde
Black has the
Decrypts message with correspondingprivate
privatedecryption
key to abcde;
key for
re-encrypts message with blues public
keyvwxyz
(12345)
Heres message encrypted w/ 12345
Heres response encrypted w /vwxyz
Decrypts message with corresponding private key to vwxyz;
re-encrypts message with yellows public key (67890)
Heres response encrypted w/ 67890
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Other public key encryption
methods
Modular logarithms
Developed by the US government, therefore not
widely trusted
Elliptic curves
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Quantum computers
A quantum computer could (in principle) factor n in
reasonable time
This would make RSA obsolete!
Shown (in principle) by Peter Shor in 1993
You would need a new (quantum) encryption algorithm to encrypt your
messages
This is like saying, in principle, you could program a
computer to correctly predict the weather
A few years ago, IBM created a quantum computer that
successfully factored 15 into 3 and 5
I bet the NSA is working on such a computer, also
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Sources
Wikipedia article has a lot of info on RSA and the
related algorithms
Those articles use different variable names
Link at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSA
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