MICRO
COMPUTERS
MICROPROCESSOR
VS. MICROCONTROLLERS
The microprocessor (MPU) is a single chip that integrates
all the computing process of a computer.
MPU includes logical function, data storage, timing
function and interaction to other devices
MICROPROCESSOR
SCHEMATIC ARRANGEMENT OF A
MICROPROCESSOR BASED SYSTEM
CLK
GPCPU
Reg
CPU
Arithmetic
Logic
Unit
Register
Arrays
Control Unit
Arithmetic
Logic
Unit
Control Unit
MICROPROCESSOR UNIT PRIMARILY CONTAINS:
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
-- performs computing tasks
Register Arrays
-- are used for temporary storage
Control Unit
-- is used for timing and other controlling functions
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MPU communicates with Memory and I/O using the System Bus
ADDRESS BUS
CONTROL LINE
Unidirectional
read and write timing signals
Memory and I/O Addresses
DATA BUS
Bidirectional
Transfers Binary Data and Instructions
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INSTRUCTION CYCLE OF A MICROPROCESSOR
SYSTEMS
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MICROPROCESSOR BASED SYSTEM: MEMORY
Memory is a group of registers
16 register address: 0-15 in binary: 0-1111
Serves two major purposes:
storing the binary codes for the sequence of instructions specified
by programs (program)
storing binary data that the computer needs to execute
instructions (data)
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MICROPROCESSOR BASED SYSTEM: MEMORY
TYPES
R/W: Read/Write Memory; also called RAM
It is volatile (losses information as power is removed)
Write means the processor can store information
Read means the processor can receive information from the memory
ROM: Read-Only memory;
It is typically non-volatile (permanent) can be erasable
It is similar to a Page from your textbook
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INPUT/OUTPUT PORTS
Input Devices
Switches and Keypads
Provide binary information to the MPU
Output devices
LEDs and LCDs
Receive binary information from the MPU
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COMPUTING LANGUAGE TRANSLATION
MICROPROCESSOR
SOFTWARE
Machine Language
Binary Instructions (1 and 0)
All programs converted into machine language for
execution
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Assembly Language
Machine instructions represented in mnemonics
One-to-one correspondence
Efficient execution and use of memory
Machine-specific
Example:
MOV AL, 1h ; Load AL with immediate value 1
MOV CL, 2h ; Load CL with immediate value 2
MOV DL, 3h ; Load DL with immediate value 3
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High-Level Languages
BASIC, C, and C++
Written in statements of spoken languages
Machine independent
Easy to write and troubleshoot
Larger memory and less efficient execution
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EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSOR
History Timeline
1823: SILICON (Si)
Baron Jons Jackob Berzelius states that silicon is the
basic element of MPU
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1947: TRANSISTORS
William Shockley, Walter Brattain and John Bardeen
Transistors made of semiconductors replaced tubes in
the construction of computers.
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MOORES LAW
- the number of transistors on integrated circuits doubles approximately every two years.
- the law is named after Intel co-founder Gordon E. Moore
- on most modern microprocessors, the majority of transistors are contained in caches.
- As of 2012, the highest transistor count in a commercially available CPU is over 2.5
billion transistors, in Intel's 10-core Xeon Westmere-EX.
-Nvidia currently holds the "world-record" for a GPU containing 7.08 billion transistors.
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1958: Integrated Circuit
Integrated circuit placed the previously separated transistors, resistors, capacitors and all
the connecting wiring onto a single crystal (or 'chip') made of semiconductor material.
It was discovered by Jack Kilby, an engineer started working for Texas Instruments in
1958. and a research engineer Robert Noyce who had co-founded the Fairchild
Semiconductor Corporation.
Kilby used germanium and Noyce used silicon for the semiconductor material.
In 1959 both parties applied for patents. Jack Kilby and Texas Instruments received U.S.
patent #3,138,743 for miniaturized electronic circuits. Robert Noyce and the Fairchild
Semiconductor Corporation received U.S. patent #2,981,877 for a silicon based integrated
circuit.
In 1961 the first commercially available integrated circuits came from the Fairchild
Semiconductor Corporation.
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1971: INTEL 4004
The 4004 was the world's first universal microprocessor
Discovered by Ted Hoff and Intel design team headed by Frederico Fagin
Specifications:
Maximum Clock Speed: 75 Mhz
Instruction Cycle: 92.6 kHz
Uses a single multiplexed 4-bit bus that transfers:
12 bit address
8 bit instruction
4 bit data word
Has 46 instructions (41 are 8 bit wide and 5 are 16 bit wide)
Has 16 registers of 4 bits each
2,300 transistors in an area of only 3 by 4 millimetres.
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Intel 4004 Pin Configuration
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1972: Intel 8008 (originally called the 1201)
The first 8-bit microprocessor, Intel 8008 (i8008) was released 5 months after Intel
4004.
The Intel 8008 was also used in calculators, terminals, certain industrial machines, and
simple data processors.
Specifications:
comprised an 8-bit CPU (central processing unit)
external 14-bit addressbus that could access up to 16KB of combined ROM (read-only
memory) and RAM (random access memory)
Clock Speed: 200 KhZ
Has 48 instructions
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The chip came in two designs, called the 8008, which could execute up to 100,000
instructions per second, and the 8008-1, which could execute up to 160,000 instructions
per second.
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1974: Intel 8080
Intel 8080 microprocessor is a successor to the Intel 8008 CPU.
The 8080 was designed by Federico Fagin and Masatoshi Shima.
Stan Mazor contributed to chip design.
The work on 8080 microprocessor was started at the end of 1972,
and the CPU was released in April of 1974.
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Intel released updated version of the CPU - 8080A, which could
drive standard TTL devices.
Specifications:
Maximum memory size was increased from 16 KB to 64 KB.
Has 16 bit address bus
Has 8 bit data bus
16 bit instruction bus
Seven 8-bit registers: A,B,C,D,E,H,L
16-bit paired registers: BC, DE and HL
The number of I/O ports was increased to 256.
The 8080 also included new Stack Pointer (SP) register.
Has 16 bit stack and stack pointer
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Intel 8080 was used in many earlier computers such as
MITS Altair 8800 and Space Invader
Altair 8800 was considered the first personal computer ever
built.
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Space Invaders ( Supsu
Inbd?) is an arcade video game developed by
Tomohiro Nishikado and released in 1978. The game uses
an Intel 8080 central processing unit, and features raster
graphics on a CRT monitor
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1974: Motorola MC6800
8-bit microprocessor designed and first manufactured by Motorola in 1974
MC6800 microprocessor was part of the M6800 Microcomputer System that also included serial
and parallel interface ICs, RAM, ROM and other support chips
Busses and instructions are almost equal to Intel 8080
The original MC6800 could have a clock frequency of up to 1 MHz. Later versions had a
maximum clock frequency of 2 MHz.
Registers includes A,B,X (index register), PC, SP, CCR (Conditional Code Register)
The 6800 was popular in computer peripherals , test equipment applications and point-of-sale
terminals.
It is a 40 pin DIP IC, can operate up to 2 MHz, has 64 KB RAM and has no No I/O ports.
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The first personal computers using the Motorola 6800
were introduced in late 1975.
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1976: Zilog Z80
8-bit microprocessor designed by Zilog and sold from July 1976 onwards
Discovered by Frederico Fagin together with Ralph Ungermann
It was designed to be binary compatible with the Intel 8080
Masatoshi Shima, co-designer of the4004 and the 8080, also contributed to the development of the Z80
Registers include AF, SP, PC, BC, DE and HL.
Cheaper than 8080
It has non multiplexed bus and compatible peripherals were made together with Z80 like SIO, DMA,
PIO and DART
It can operate up to 33 MHz, has 64 KB RAM, has 256 I/O ports
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1976: Intel 8085
8-bit microprocessor introduced by Intel in 1977
It was binary compatible with the more-famous Intel 8080 but required less
supporting hardware.
8085 requires only a +5-Volt (V) power supply
Uses instructions such as MOV,ADD,SUB,JMP, etc.
It can operate up to 8 MHz and has 64 KB RAM.
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The Swiss company SAIA used the 8085 as the CPUs of their PCA1 line of
programmable logic controllers during the 1980s.
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1978: Intel 8086 / 1979: Intel 8088
8086 (also called iAPX 86) is a 16-bit microprocessor chip designed by Intel between early 1976
and mid-1978, when it was released.
The Intel 8088, released in 1979, was a slightly modified chip with an external 8-bit data bus and is
notable as the processor used in the original IBM PC.
The 8088 microprocessor has 16-bit registers, 16-bit internal data bus and 20-bit address bus, which
allows the processor address up to 1 MB of memory.
The 8088 uses the same segmented memory addressing as the 8086: the processor can address 64
KB of memory directly
It has more than 5 MHz maximum clock frequency which was fabricated using Intel's new
enhanced nMOS process called HMOS and specified for a maximum frequency of 8 MHz. .
The original IBM PC was based on the 8088.
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Seattle Computer Products shipped S-100 bus based 8086 systems (SCP200B) as early as November
1979.
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1982: Intel 80286
The second generation of x86 16-bit processors, Intel 80286, was
released in 1982.
The major new feature of the 80286 microprocessor was protected mode.
The 80286 chip contained a 24-bit address bus, capable of accessing up
to 16 MB(megabytes) of RAM (random access memory).
Clock Speed: 12.5 MhZ
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1985: Intel 80386
Intel 80386 (i386) was a 32-bit microprocessor.
The Intel 80386 was produced at speeds up to 33 MHz, AMD produced even faster 40 MHz version.
There were a few different versions of the 80386 CPUs:
80386DX - this CPU could work with 16-bit and 32-bit external buses. (4GB)
80386SX - low cost version of the 80386. This processor had 16 bit external data bus and 24-bit
external address bus. (16MB)
80386SL - low-power microprocessor with power management features, with 16-bit external data
bus and 24-bit external address bus. The processor included ISA bus controller, memory controller
and cache controller. (32MB)
Could run applications requiring GUI or WYSIWYG or CAD
The first company to design and manufacture a PC based on the Intel 80386 was Compaq.
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1989: Intel 80486
It represents a fourth generation of binary compatible CPUs since the original 8086 of
1978.
It was a higher performance follow-up to the Intel 80386 microprocessor introduced in
1989.
The first 80486-based PCs were announced in late 1989, but some advised that people
wait until 1990 to purchase an 80486 PC.
It is a 32 bit microprocessor and has 32 bit data bus. It has an addressing capacity of 4GB.
Intel 80486 versions:
Intel 80486DX 50Mhz
Intel 80486DX2 66 MHz
Intel 80486DX4 100Mhz
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1993: Intel Pentium (P5, i586)
Fifth generation of x86 family
Intel Pentium microprocessor was the first x86 superscalar CPU
The name Pentium is originally derived from the Greek word pente meaning "five" (as the
original Pentium processors used Intel's fifth-generation micro architecture, the P5), and
the Latin ending -ium
Pentium had 3.1 million transistors.
SPECIFICATIONS:
64 bit microprocessor
64 bit data bus
Speed: 60 MHz 66 MHz
Memory: 4 GB
Cache Memory: 16 KB
Uses superscalar architecture
Uses five stage pipelined architecture
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1995: Pentium Pro (P6, i686)
It is the sixth-generation x86 microprocessor developed and
manufactured by Intel introduced in November 1, 1995.
Pentium Pro contained 5.5 million transistors.
SPECIFICATION:
64 bit microprocessor
Memory: 64 GB
L1 cache memory: 16 KB
L2 cache memory: 256 KB
Has 12-stage super pipelined architecture
Clock Speed: 150 MHz 166 MHz
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1997: Pentium II
The Pentium II brand refers to Intel's sixth-generation micro architecture ("P6") and x86compatible microprocessors introduced on May 7, 1997.
Containing 7.5 million transistors
In early 1999, the Pentium II was superseded by the Pentium III.
SPECIFICATIONS:
64 bit microprocessor
Memory: 64 MB
L1 cache: 32 KB
L2 cache: 512 KB
Clock Rate: 350 MHz 450 MHz
Utilizes four new technologies:
1. DIB (Dual Independent Bus) Architecture
2. Dynamic Execution
3. Intel MMX (Matrix Math Extensions) Technology
4. Single-Edge Contact (SEC) Cartridge
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1998: Intel Celeron
Celeron is a brand name given by Intel Corp. to a number of
different computer microprocessor models targeted at budget personal computers.
SPECIFICATIONS:
It offered the following technologies:
1. AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) graphics
2. ATA-33 hard disk
3. SDRAM (Synchronous dynamic random-access memory)
4. ACPI (Advanced Configuration and Power Interface )
Clock Speed: 266 MHz to 533 MHz
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1999: Pentium III
The Pentium III (marketed as Intel Pentium III Processor, informally PIII, also stylized as
Pentium !!! ) brand refers to Intel's 32-bit x86 desktop and
mobile microprocessors introduced on February 26, 1999.
The brand's initial processors were very similar to the earlier Pentium II-branded
microprocessors.
The most notable differences were the addition of the SSE instruction set (to
accelerate floating point and parallel calculations)
SPECIFICATIONS:
64 bit microprocessor
Memory: 64 GB
L1 cache: 32 KB
L2 cache: 256 KB/512 KB
Could run Windows NT or UNIX based environments
Clock speed: 450 MHz to 1.4 GHz
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2000: Pentium 4
Pentium 4 CPUs are based on new NetBurst micro-architecture.
It is a line of single-core desktop and laptop central processing
units (CPUs) introduced by Intel on November 20, 2000
SPECIFICATIONS:
64 bit microprocessor
Memory: 64 GB
L1 cache: 32 KB
L2 cache: 256 /512 KB
Clock Rate: 1.4 GHz to 3.6 GHz
Uses 20 pipeline stages referred as Hyper Threading Technology
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2001: Intel Xeon
Intel Xeon is a high-performance version of Intel desktop processors intended for use in
servers and high-end workstations.
Xeon CPUs have the same features as Pentium 4 and Core 2 Duo/Quad desktop
microprocessors
The Xeon CPUs generally have more cache than their desktop counterparts in addition to
multiprocessing capabilities.
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2001: Itanium
Itanium is Intel's first microprocessor that is based on the 64-bit architecture
known as IA-64.
In addition to supporting a 64-bit processor bus and a set of 28 registers, the 64bit design allows access to a very large memory (VLM).
The architecture exploits features in Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing
( EPIC ), a joint Intel and Hewlett-Packard development effort. These
provide advances in the parallel processing handling of computer
instruction s known as predication and speculation .
An additional, Itanium feature includes a Level 3 (L3) cache memory , to
supplement the current L1 and L2 cache memories found in most of today's
microcomputers.
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2003: Pentium M
The Pentium M family was introduced as a part of Intel Centrino
technology on March 12, 2003
The Pentium M CPU has separate 32 KB instruction and data caches
(twice as large as on Pentium 4 or Pentium III), large 1 or 2 MB
level 2 cache, and includes MMX, SSE and SSE2 instructions.\
Pentium M microprocessors utilize quad-pumped Front Side Bus
running at 100 and 133 MHz, or effectively at 400 and 533 MHz
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2005: Intel Pentium D
Pentium D is a family of Dual-core microprocessors based on Intel
NetBurst micro-architecture.
The Pentium D CPUs have almost all features of Prescott / Cedar
Mill microprocessors - same size of level 1 instruction opcode and data
caches, 1 or 2 MB level 2 cache per core, support for SSE3 instructions,
Extended Memory 64 Technology and Execute Disable bit capability.
The Pentium D CPUs have higher power consumptions than Pentium 4
processors, but not significantly higher.
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