Introduction to Networking

Dr. Poonam Garg

Introduction to the computer
networks
 Overview

At the end of this session, you will be able

to understand
 Computer networks
 Different network model
 Network elements
 Various network topologies
 Benefits of computer network
 Exchange data
 Sharing of resources
 Backup
 Flexible working environment
 Network models
Network models are used to classify by size,
distance and structure
 LAN
 MAN
 WAN
 LAN  WAN
– Local Area Network – Wide Area Network
– used within or between – used between buildings or
offices Countries
– Do not exceed 2/3 – WAN has two subcategories
kilometer. • Enterprise
– Connects all LAN’s of a single
organization (INTRANET)
• Global
– Global networks cross national
and organizational boundaries
(INTERNET)
LANs make it possible for businesses that use computer
technology to share, efficiently, such items as files and printers,
and to make possible communications such as e-mail. They tie
together data, communications, computing, and file servers.
Some common WAN technologies are:
•modems •ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) •DSL
(Digital SubscriberLoop) •frame relay •ATM (Asynchronous Transfer
Mode) •T-Carrier Series (in U.S.:T1, T3, etc.) •SONET (Synchronous
Optical Network)
 Network elements
Regardless of the network model, a network
system consists of three basic elements

 Network services
 Transmission media
 Network protocol
 Network services
Network services are provided by network hardware and software.
Depending on the task, this combination of hardware and software
can take on various roles

 Server - service provider

 Clients - service requester
 Peers - can be service provider and service
requester. Peer to peer network software is
designed so that peers perform the same or
similar. e.g. windows for workgroup
Servers, Clients, and Peers
 Transmission media
Computer transmission media include cables and wireless technologies
that enables network devices to contact each other.

 Twisted pair
 Coaxial cables
 Fiber optics
 Line-of-sight transmission
 Communication satellites
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

 Relies on cancellation to
reduce EMI

 Resistance = 100 ohms

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Advantages
 Easy to install
 Least expensive of all
media
 Small diameter of cable
 Proper termination
procedures insures
reliable connection
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Disadvantages
 More prone to EMI/RFI
than any other cable
 Shortest allowable length
of any other cable.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

 All the advantages and

disadvantages of UTP.
 Foil shields provide
greater protection against
EMI & RFI.
 Increased cost of cable
Coaxial Cable

Advantages
 Longer cable runs than
UTP & STP (up to 500m)
 Cheaper than using fiber
for your backbone
 Technology is well known
(Cable TV)
 Better at reducing EMI
than UTP or STP
Coaxial Cable

Disadvantages
 Thickness of cable
 Copper shielding must be
grounded at both ends of
the connection
Fiber Optics
Advantages
 Longer runs than any
other cable (2km)
 Higher data rates than
any other cable
(>100Mbps)
 NO EMI!!
Fiber Optics

Disadvantages
 Very expensive!!
 Difficult to install

 Therefore, fiber is
used only for backbone
installations.
Microwave radio transmission

Microwave
towers

Earth surface relay station

satellites transmission

uplink downlink

Earth station
Speed : Distance :
10 megabit per 500 meter
second
Signal type :
Base Band
transmission
Speed : Distance :
10 megabit per 500 meter
second
Signal type :
Base Band
transmission
 10 Base T Categories
Types: Important categories are:

CAT 1 - regular analog phone line

CAT 2 - supports speed up to 4 magabits per
second
CAT 3 - supports speed up to 16 magabits per
second
CAT 4 - supports speed up to 20 magabits per
second
CAT 5 - supports speed up to 100 magabits per
second
CAT 6 - This is currently in development, and is
also known as cat 5 with enhanced performance.
 TIA/EIA
 TIA (telecommunication Industry Association) &
EIA (Electronic Industries Alliance) issue
standards together for technologies that involve
both telecommunications & electronics.
 TIA & EIA have had the greatest impact on
networking media standards
 TIA/EIA 568A is the cable standard we will use
when making our cables
 TIA/EIA 568A Overview
 Specifies cable performance & termination
procedures for horizontal cabling
 Six categories (CAT 1 to CAT 6)
 CAT 5 media includes UTP, STP, Coaxial
& Fiber
 CAT 5 UTP is most common. CAT 5
supports speed up to 100 magabits per
second.
 Horizontal v. Vertical Cabling
 Horizontal Cabling includes all cabling that
runs from work areas to the wiring closet.
– Example: All Cat 5 UTP cabling in this classroom is
horizontal cabling
 Vertical Cabling is another name for
backbone cabling.
– Example:The fiber optic cabling from Main Building
to MDP Building, MDP building to hostel is vertical
cabling
Horizontal Cabling (TIA/EIA
568A)

Work Station
(Patch Cable)

Cross-Connect Jumpers
(Patch Cable)

Horizontal
Cable Run

3m + 90m + 6m = 99m
...or approx. 100 meters for CAT 5 UTP
Local Area Network

  Patch Panel
                             
 IEEE 802.3 Layer 1
Components
 Passive Components (do not add energy)
– Cabling
– Connectors
– Jacks
– Patch Panels
 Active Components (adds energy)
– Repeaters, Transceivers, & Hubs

Let’s briefly look at each passive component

10Base-T Cabling

 Cat 5 Cable is a Layer 1

component
 It carries bits!
 CAT 5 is the 10Base-T
standard cable
 The twisting of wires limits
signal degradation through
cancellation.
10Base-T Jacks

 RJ-45 Jacks have 8

conductors that
match the RJ-45
plug’s connectors.
10Base-T cable and device
 Cable has 4 pair
 10 Base T uses only 2
pairs
 10 Base T devices uses
pin 1 and 2 to send data
 pin 3 and 6 to receive
data.
 10 Base T can not send
and receive the data
1 8
simultaneously
 Cabling
 Crossover Cable - Cross connect cables are used to connect the
following types of connections:
workstation to workstation, workstation to server, hub to switch,
switch to switch.

 Straight through - Straight through cables are used for the

following types of connections: workstation to hub workstation
to switch, server to hub, server to switch


Rollover or console cable - used to connect a PC to the router for

purposes of accessing the router
 Straight Through Cable
Wiring Scheme:
RJ-45 Jack A RJ-45 Jack B
White orange 1 White orange 1
Orange 2 Orange 2
White green 3 White green 3
Blue 4 Blue 4
White blue 5 White blue 5
Green 6 Green 6
White brown 7 White brown 7
Brown 8 Brown 8
 Network Cable tools

Universal UTP
Stripping Tool

 
                     
Modular Plug
Crimp Tool
Diagonal
Cutters
 Roll Over Cable Wiring
Scheme:
RJ-45 Jack A RJ-45 Jack B
White orange 1 Brown 8
Orange 2 White brown 7
White green 3 Green 6
Blue 4 White blue 5
White blue 5 Blue 4
Green 6 White green 3
White brown 7 Orange 2
Brown 8 White orange 1
Cross Connect (Over) Cable
Wiring Scheme:
RJ-45 Jack A RJ-45 Jack B
White orange 1 White green 3
Orange 2 Green 6
White green 3 White orange 1
Blue 4 Blue 4
White blue 5 White blue 5
Green 6 Orange 2
White brown 7 White brown 7
Brown 8 Brown 8
10Base-T Patch Panels
 Patch panels are used
to conveniently group
a work area’s
connections
 One side has a place
for each RJ-45 plug
 The back side has
punch down blocks
that provide
connectivity
 COLLISIONS
 If more than one node attempts to transmit
at the same time
 Packets destroyed, bit by bit
 Two devices trying to occupy the same
medium (wire) at the same time

Collisions occur in broadcast topologies where devices are attached to a

shared media.
 COLLISION
DOMAIN
 Collision Domains are the area where
collisions occur.
 Repeaters and hubs extend the collision domain
COLLISION
DOMAIN
 SEGMENTATION
 Reduces size of collision domain
 Networking device used are bridges,
switches and routers
 Eliminate unnecessary traffic on busy
network by dividing into segments and
filtering traffic based on station address
10Base-T Connectors
 Standard 10Base-T
Termination is the Registered
Jack-45
 Similar to phone plug except
the RJ-45 has 8 pins instead
of 4 pins
 Reduces noise, reflection, &
mechanical stability problems
 Network Protocol

In networking it is possible different type of computer to communicate

PC

Mainframe

All the devices

speak the
Macintosh
same
language
 Protocol contd….

Protocol is a common language that can be understood by all devices on a network

Suppose a group of people

American
are assigned to work as a
team to complete a project, it
does not matter

French
Indian

German
Network Topologies
Extended
Bus
Star

Ring
Mesh

Star
Linear Bus
 All nodes directly
connected to one physical
link
 Each end of the bus must
be properly terminated
 Signal transmission over a bus
source

destination

Bus terminator
(when signal reaches the end of the bus,
it is absorbed by the terminator. This
prevents signal from bouncing back and
being received again by the work station
attached.
Star
 All devices connected to a
central point
 Center of star is usually a
hub or a switch
 Used for Ethernet
technologies
Ring
 No backbone
 A host is directly
connected to each of its
neighbors
 Used for token passing
logical topologies
Extended Star
 Connects individual star
topologies together.
 At the center of the star is a
hub or a switch.
 Extends the length and size
of the network.
 This is the topology we are
using in our lab!
 Hierarchical Topology

1. Also called a tree

topology
2. No central node

Which type is this graphic?

Complete Mesh

 What’s unique about

this topology?
At the end of the session you will be able to
understand

 OSI and TCP/IP model

 Various Protocols – FTP, HTTP, Telnet etc….
 Internet addressing schemes
 Building Blocks of Data
Communication
 All communications require three things:
– Senders and receivers that have something to
share
• Coded by sender
• Decoded by receiver
– A pathway or transmission media to send the
message
– Rules or protocols of communication
Human vs Computer
Communication
Modems
 High Speed Connections
 T1, T2, T3, T4 lines
 ISDN (integrated services digital network)
– Uses high-speed telephone lines
 Cable modems
– use existing cable infrastructure
 Typical User Connection Costs
and Speeds
Seconds to
Type Cost/Year Speed Receive
Modem $ 280 56kbps 45 seconds
T1 Line $ 14,500 1.5 mbps 1.7
ISDN $ 6,300 128 kbps 19.9
ADSL $ 2,250 1.5 mbps 1.7
 Connectivity Software
 The OSI Model
 Network Operating Systems
 ISO (International
Organization for Standards)
To address the problem of networks being incompatible and unable to
communicate with each other, the International Organization for
standardization(ISO), in order to find a set of rules.

ISO recognized that

Became the primary architectural model for inter

computer communication.
 Open Systems Interconnection
Model (OSI)
 OSI is the international framework of
standards for communication between
different systems.
 Developed by the International
Organization for Standardization in
1984.
 It consists of seven layers.
Why a layered Network Model

All People Seem To Need Data Processing

 OSI Model Layers
 The highest layer (the application layer)
is closest to the user.
 The lowest layer (the physical layer) is
closest to the media technology.
 Each layer has a different but specific
processing function.
Host and Media Layers
The OSI model is like a blueprint for a
building car. After a car blueprint is
complete, the car must still be built
OSI Model Application Layer
 7. The Application Layer
 Closest to user
 Provides network services to user’s applications (such as
electronic mail and file transfer) Only provides services to
applications outside the OSI model
 Identifies and establishes the availability of intended
communication partners.
 Synchronizes cooperating applications and establishes
agreement on procedures for error recovery andBROWSERS
data control
of data integrity. It also determines whether sufficient
resources for intended communication exist.
OSI Model Presentation Layer
 6. The Presentation Layer
 Ensures that data sent by the application
layer of one system is readable by the
application layer of another system
 Encryption, decryption, compression, and
decompression.
 If needed, translates between multiple data
formats using a COMMON DATA
FORMAT
OSI Model Session Layer
 5. The Session Layer
 Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions
between applications
 Provides services to the presentation layer
 Synchronizes dialogue between hosts’
presentation layers and manages their data
exchange
 Provides efficient data transfer, class of service,
and exception reporting for layers 5, 6, & 7
 DIALOGUES & CONVERSATIONS
OSI Model Transport Layer
 4. The Transport Layer
 Segments data from the sending host & reassembles
data on the receiving host
 Shielding boundary between upper 3 layers
(application issues) & lower 3 layers (data transport
issues)
 Establishes, maintains, and terminates virtual
circuits (No hardware at this level - all software).
 Error detection-and-recovery
 Information flow control
 QUALITY OF SERVICE, RELIABILITY
OSI Model Network Layer
 3. The Network Layer
 Provides connectivity and best path selection
between two end systems
 Data is formatted into data packets.
 Determines the proper path - routing.
 IP addressing (logical addressing).
 Packet switching occurs at this layer.
 Domain of routing
 PATH SELECTION, ROUTING, ADDRESSING Router
OSI Model Data Link Layer
 2. The Data Link Layer
 Provides reliable transfer of data across a physical link (media)
 concerned with Physical addressing, Network topology,
media access
 2 sublayers :
 Media Access Control (MAC)
 Logical link control (LLC)
 Formats data into the frame
Bridges and switch
 Error notification
 Ordered delivery of frames
OSI Model Physical Layer
 •Other layer deals with 0’s and 1’s

•the physical layer defines the rules for turning those ones and zeroes into
electrical signal going out over a copper cable

NIC NIC
01001010101101010 01001010101101010

The repeater takes a electrical signal received from one segments of cable, converts
it into binary code, and then converts the binary code back into the a physical signa
on the other segments.
 1. The Physical Layer
 Sends and receives bits
 has two responsibility : sending and receiving
data
 Defines the electrical and functional
specification for activating and maintaining the
link between the system
 Wires, connectors, voltages, data rates
 SIGNALS, MEDIA Repeaters, hubs,
cabling
 Protocol Data Units
 Different layers in the OSI model have different
groupings for data
 Each layer has a protocol data unit, or PDU
 Transport layer deals with segments
 Network layer encapsulates segments into packets
 Data Link layer encapsulates packets into frames
 Physical layer converts frames to bit streams
The OSI Model and
Message Passing
 Encapsulation
 Packaging of data for transmission
 Data flows down the levels of the source and then
up the levels of the destination
 5 encapsulation steps:
– Build data
– Transport layer segments data
– Network layers puts data into a packet with
header information
– Data Link layer puts packet into a frame
– Physical Layer converts frame to bits
Data Encapsulation Example
Peer-to-Peer Communication
 A Bit of History
 The TCP/IP Model was develop by the
Department of Defense in the late 60s’ to ensure
data communications would not be interrupted
even under the worse circumstances.
 Since then, TCP/IP has become the de facto
method we use for data communications on the
Internet.
 The TCP/IP reference model
 the de facto Internet standard
 demonstrates arbitrary nature of layers
– various models are possible
– OSI & TCP/IP are the two most important
 The TCP/IP reference model
 Specifications for development:
– information flows regardless of the condition of the
network
– packets get to their destination every time
– packets can travel from any point to any other point
 TCP/IP resulted
– DoD project
– standard on which the Internet has grown
 Layers of the TCP/IP model
 Four layers:
– Application
– Transport
– Internet
– Network Access

IMPORTANT--even though the names may be the same as

the OSI layers, do not confuse the layers of the two models.
The layers include different functions in each model.
TCP/IP-Two separate Protocols
 TCP  IP
Connection- connectionless
oriented layer 4- layer 3-network
transport protocol
protocol
The Four Layers of TCP/IP
Includes all the functions
Application of the OSI’s Application,
Presentation, & Session
layers including:
• Data representation
• Data encryption and
• Dialog control
The Four Layers of TCP/IP

Application Uses the TCP protocol

and is responsible for
quality of service issues
Transport including:
• Reliability
• Flow Control and
• Error Correction
The Four Layers of TCP/IP

Application

Transport
Uses the IP protocol and
is responsible for:
Internet • Path determination and
• Packet switching.
The Four Layers of TCP/IP

Application Includes all the

functions of the OSI’s
Data Link & Physical
Transport layers including:
• processes required by
IP to ensure a packet
Internet reaches its destination.
• all the various LAN &
WAN Technologies
Network Access such as 100BaseTX &
Frame Relay.
 Application Layer
 One application layer handles all high-level
protocols
– Includes the functions of the OSI Presentation
& Session layers
– Assumes data is properly packaged for the next
layer
 Handles issues of representation, encoding,
and dialog control
 Transport Layer
 Quality of service
– Reliability, flow control, error correction
 Uses TCP protocol
– Transmission Control Protocol
– Reliable, low-error
– Packages application layer data into segments
 Internet Layer
 Sends source packets across the internetwork
independent of path
 Uses IP
– Internet Protocol
 Best Path determination
 Packet Switching
– Logical connection formed by packets between
hosts
 Network Access Layer
 Also Host to Network layer
 Deals with issues that an IP packet requires
to actually make a physical link
 Includes LAN & WAN technology
 Includes all the OSI physical and data link
layer details
Protocols For Each Layer
 FTP-File Transfer
Application
Protocol
 HTTP-Hypertext
Transfer Protocol
 SMTP-Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol
 DNS-Domain Name
Service
 TFTP-Trivial File
Transfer Protocol
Protocols For Each Layer

Application
 TCP-Transmission
Transport Control Protocol
 UDP-User Datagram
Protocol
Protocols For Each Layer

Application

Transport

Internet
 IP-Internet Protocol
 Protocols For Each Layer

Application

Transport

Internet

 LAN & WAN

Network Access
Technologies
 TCP/IP OSI
Application
Application Presentation
Session
Transport Transport
Internet Network
Data Link
Network Access
Physical
 Evolution of LAN Devices
 NICs, Repeaters, & Hubs
 Bridges
 Switches
 Routers
 NIC Specifics
 NICs provide hosts with access to media
by using a MAC address.
 MAC stands for Media Access Control
 NICs operate at Layer 2 !!
 NICs, Repeaters, & Hubs
The First LAN
NIC NIC

 To connect two computers, you must...

NIC
Install a NIC card in each.


Attach computers using a crossover cable

NICs, Repeaters, & Hubs
Repeaters can be used
to increase the distance
NIC NIC

So what can we use

What’s the maximum
Repeaters if
takes this
the distance
100ismeters
greater or
than
incoming approx. 300 feet
100 meters?
electrical
distance for Cat 5 cable?
signal, translates them
into binary code, and
then retransmits the
electrical signal
NICs, Repeaters, & Hubs

NIC NIC

Using repeaters was fine as long as a business

only needed two computers networked.
What if a business wanted a
NIC third computer attached? NIC

Or a fourth? What
device would they need?
NICs, Repeaters, & Hubs
A multi-port repeater!
Also called a...
NIC Hub NIC

NIC NIC
 As businesses expanded their
networks, they began to
cascade hubs.

NIC NIC

NIC NIC
 What’s The Problem?
 Hubs share bandwidth between all attached
devices.
 take all the signals they receive in through one
port and redistribute it out through all ports
 Hubs are stupid, Layer 1 devices. They cannot
filter traffic.
 Most LANs use a “broadcast topology,” so every
device sees every packet sent down the media.
Broadcasts

In this picture, all hubs forward

all traffic to all devices.
 Broadcasts

1
2
So, if Host 1 wants
ping Host 2, all hosts
see the ping. This is
what we mean by a
broadcast topology

The red arrows show that all hosts receive the

ping request. Only Host 2 will respond.
 What’s The Solution?
 We need a smarter hub!
 What’s a “smarter hub” called?
 A Bridge!
 Bridges filter network traffic based on
MAC addresses.
 Let’s take a look at how this works.
 Collision domain
The network area within which data packets originates and collide is
called as collision domain
 Bridge
A
B

C D E

To lessen the amount of LAN traffic,

businesses began to uses bridges to
filter frames based on MAC addresses.
 Bridge
Collision domain 1
1
2
Collision domain 1
3 1 MACHINE00 45 5D
Mac32Address
5E 72

4 5 2
3
00 45 5D 32 5E 73
00 45 5D 32 5E 74
4 00 45 5D 32 5E 75
5 00 45 5D 32 5E 76

6 00 45 5D 32 5E 77
7 00 45 5D 32 5E 78
8 00 45 5D 32 5E 79
9 00 45 5D 32 5E 81
Collision domain 2 10 00 45 5D 32 5E 82

6
7
8 Now, if Host 1 pings Host 2, only the hosts on
9 10 that LAN segment see the ping. The bridges
stop the ping.
Switch

A switch (also know as a multi-port bridge),

can effectively replace these four bridges.
Switch
10 Mbps

10 Mbps
The Cloud

10 Mbps

10 Mbps 10 Mbps

Another benefit of a switch is that each

LAN segment gets dedicated bandwidth.
 Since
But a aswitch
switchcannot
is a multi-port bridge,
stop a ping destined
Switch we
for know
traveling
it will LAN
a different
traveling to
stopsegment
to other
local pings
network
all other
from
from
segments.
LAN segments.

1
2
Switch
For example, Host 1 pings Host 16. Since Host
What device will solve this problem?
16 is on another LAN segment, the switch will
flood the ping request out all ports.
1
Router

Routers filter traffic based on IP addresses.

16
The IP address tells the router which LAN
segment the ping belongs to.