Biomechanical Characteristics of Bone - Bone Tissue
Inorganic Components Organic Components
(e.g., calcium and phosphate) (e.g. collagen)
65-70% 25-30%
(dry wt) H2O (dry wt)
(25-30%)
one of the ductile
bodys hardest
structures brittle
viscoelastic 1
Mechanical Loading of Bone
Compression Tension Shear Torsion Bending
2
Compressive Loading
Vertebral fractures
cervical fractures
spine loaded through head
e.g., football, diving, gymnastics
once spearing was outlawed
in football the number of cervical
injuries declined dramatically
lumbar fractures
weight lifters, linemen, or gymnasts
spine is loaded in hyperlordotic
(aka swayback) position
3
Tensile Loading
Main source of tensile load is muscle
tension can stimulate tissue growth
fracture due to tensile loading is usually an avulsion
other injuries include sprains, strains, inflammation, bony deposits
when the tibial tuberosity experiences excessive loads from quadriceps
muscle group develop condition known as Osgood-Schlatters disease
4
Shear Forces
created by the application
of compressive, tensile or a
combination of these loads
5
Bone Compressive Strength
Material Compressive
Strength (MPa)
Femur (cortical) 131-224
Tibia (cortical) 106-200
Wood (oak) 40-80
Steel 370
From: Biomechanics of the Musculo-skeletal System, Nigg and Herzog 6
Relative Strength of Bone
7
Bending Forces
Usually a 3- or 4-point
force application
8
Torsional Forces Caused by a twisting force
produces shear, tensile, and
compressive loads
tensile and compressive loads are
at an angle
often see a spiral fracture develop
from this load
9
Strength and Stiffness of Bone Tissue
evaluated using relationship between
applied load and amount of deformation
LOAD - DEFORMATION CURVE
Bone Tissue Characteristics
Anisotropic Viscoelastic Elastic Plastic
10
Stress = Force/Area Strain = Change in Length/Angle
Note: Stress-Strain curve is a normalized Load-Deformation Curve 11
Elastic & Plastic responses
plastic region
fracture/failure
elastic
region elastic thru 3%deformation
Stress (Load)
plastic response leads to fracturing
Dstress Strength defined by failure point
Dstrain
Stiffness defined as the slope of the
elastic portion of the curve
12
Strain (Deformation)
Elastic Biomaterials (Bone)
Elastic/Plastic characteristics Load/deformation curves
Brittle material fails before
permanent deformation elastic
limit
Ductile material deforms
greatly before failure ductile material
brittle material
Bone exhibits both properties
bone
deformation (length)
13
Anisotropic response
behavior of bone is dependent
on direction of applied load
14
Bone Anisotropy
trabecular
tension
compression
cortical
shear
tension
compression
0 50 100 150 200
Maximum Stress (MPa)
From: Biomechanics of the Musculo-skeletal System, Nigg and Herzog 15
Viscoelastic Response
behavior of bone is dependent
on rate load is applied
Bone will fracture sooner
when load applied slowly
fracture
Load
fracture
deformation 16
SKELETON
axial skeleton
skull, thorax, pelvis, &
vertebral column
appendicular skeleton
upper and lower
extremities
should be familiar with
all major bones
17
Purposes of Skeleton
protect vital organs
factory for production of red blood cells
reservoir for minerals
attachments for skeletal muscles
system of machines to produce movement in
response to torques
18
Bone Vernacular
condyle
a rounded process of a bone that
articulates with another bone
e.g. femoral condyle
epicondyle
a small condyle
e.g. humeral epicondyle
19
Bone Vernacular
facet
a small, fairly flat, smooth surface of a
bone, generally an articular surface
e.g. vertebral facets
foramen
a hole in a bone through which nerves or
vessels pass
e.g. vertebral foramen
20
Bone Vernacular
fossa
a shallow dish-shaped section of a bone
that provides space for an articulation with
another bone or serves as a muscle
attachment
glenoid fossa
process
a bony prominence
olecranon process
21
Bone Vernacular
tuberosity
a raised section of bone to which a
ligament, tendon, or muscle attaches;
usually created or enlarged by the stress of
the muscles pull on that bone during
growth
radial tuberosity
22
Long Bones
e.g. femur, tibia
1 long dimension
used for leverage
larger and stronger
in lower extremity
than upper extremity
have more weight to
support
23
Short Bones
e.g. carpals and
tarsals
designed for
strength not mobility
not important for us
in this class
24
Flat Bones
e.g. skull, ribs,
scapula
usually provide
protection
25
Irregular Bones
e.g. vertebrae
provide protection,
support and
leverage
26
Sesamoid Bones
e.g. patella (knee cap)
a short bone embedded
within a tendon or joint
capsule
alters the angle of
insertion of the muscle
27
Long Bone Structure
cortical or compact bone
(porosity ~ 15%)
periosteum
outer cortical membrane
endosteum
inner cortical membrane
trabecular, cancellous,
or spongy, bone
(porosity ~70%)
28
Long Bone Structure
epiphyseal plate
metaphysis cartilage separating
either end of diaphysis metaphysis from epiphysis
filled with trabecular bone
diaphysis
shaft of bone
epiphysis
proximal and distal
ends of a long bone
29
Biomechanical Characteristics of Bone
Physical Activity Lack of Activity
Gravity Bone Tissue Hormones
Remodeling/Growth
Bone Deposits Age &
(myositis ossificans) Osteoporosis
30
Longitudinal
Bone Growth
occurs at the
epiphyseal or
growth plate
bone cells are produced on the
diaphyseal side of the plate
plate ossifies around age 18-25 and
longitudinal growth stops
31
Epiphyseal Closures
Vertebrae
Ribs
Humerus, prox.
Humerus, dist.
Ulna, prox.
Ulna, dist.
Tibia, prox.
Tibia, dist.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
From: Biomechanics of Human Movement, Adrian and Cooper 32
Circumferential
Bone Growth
growth throughout the
lifespan
bone cells are produced on the
internal layer of the periosteum by
osteoblasts
concurrently bone is resorbed around
the circumference of the medullary
cavity by osteoclasts 33
Biomechanical Characteristics of Bone
Wolffs Law
bone is laid down where needed and
resorbed where not needed
shape of bone reflects its function
tennis arm of pro tennis players have
cortical thicknesses 35% greater than
contralateral arm (Keller & Spengler, 1989)
osteoclasts resorb or take-up bone
osteoblasts lay down new bone
34
Bone Deposits
A response to regular activity
regular exercise provides stimulation to maintain
bone throughout the body
tennis players and baseball pitchers
develop larger and more dense bones in
dominant arm
male and female runners have higher than
average bone density in both upper and
lower extremities
non-weightbearing exercise (swimming,
cycling) can have positive effects on
BMD
35
Bone Resorption
lack of mechanical stress
Calcium (Ca) levels decrease
Ca removed through blood via kidneys
increases the chance of kidney stones
weightless effects (hypogravity)
astronauts use exercise routines to provide
stimulus from muscle tension
these are only tensile forces - gravity is compressive
36
37
Typical Vertical GRF during running
30
Tip-Toe running pattern
25
Heel-toe running pattern
20
Fz (N/kg)
15
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
time (ms)
38
TVIS
Treadmill Vibration Isolation and
Stabilization System
39
Changes in bone over time
Early Years
Osgood-Schlatters disease
development of inflammation, bony deposits, or
an avulsion fracture of the tibial tuberosity
muscle-bone strength imbalance
growth factor between bone length and
muscle tendon unit (e.g., rapid growth of femur
and tibia places large strain on patellar tendon
and tibial tuberosity)
during puberty muscle development
(testosterone) may outpace bone development
allowing muscle to pull away from bone
40
Changes in bone over time
Early Years
overuse injuries
repeated stresses mold skeletal structures
specifically for that activity
Little Leaguers Elbow
premature closure of epiphyseal disc
Gymnasts
4X greater occurrence of low back pathology in
young female gymnasts than in general
population (Jackson, 1976)
41
Changes in bone over time
Adult Years
little change in length
most change in density
lack of use decreases density
DECREASE STRENGTH OF BONE
activity
increased activity leads to increased
diameter, density, cortical width and Ca
42
Changes in bone over time
Adult Years
hormonal influence
estrogen to maintain bone minerals
previously only consider after menopause
now see link between amenorrhea and
decreased estrogen - Female Athlete Triad
disordered amenorrhea osteoporosis
eating
low body fat low estrogen
excessive training levels
43
Changes in Bone Over Time
Older Adults
30 yrs males and 40 yrs females
BMD peaks (Frost, 1985; Oyster et al., 1984)
decrease BMD, diameter and
mineralization after this
activity slows aging process
44
Bone Mass (g of Ca) Age, Bone Mass and Gender
1000
500
0 25 50 75 100
Age (yr)
From: Biomechanics of Musculoskeletal Injury, Whiting and Zernicke 45
Reduced BMD
Osteopenia slightly elevated risk
of fracture
Severe BMD reduction
Osteoporosis very high risk of
fracture
(hip, wrist, spine, ribs)
Hormonal Nutritional Physical
Factors Factors Activity
28 million Americans affected 80% of these are women
10 million suffer from osteoporosis
46
18 million have low bone mass
Osteoporosis
age
women lose 0.5-1% of their bone mass
each year until age 50 or menopause
after menopause rate of bone loss
increases (as high as 6.5%)
47
Do you get shorter with age?
Osteoporosis compromises structural
integrity of vertebrae
weakened trabecular bone
vertebrae are crushed
actually lose height
more weight anterior to spine so the
compressive load on spine creates wedge-
shaped vertebrae
create a kyphotic curve known as Dowagers Hump
for some reason mens vertebrae increase in
diameter so these effects are minimized
48
Preventing Osteoporosis
$13.8 billion in 1995 (~$38 million/day)
Lifestyle Choices
proper diet
sufficient calcium, vitamin D,
dietary protein and phosphorous (too much?)
tobacco, alcohol, and caffeine
EXERCISE, EXERCISE, EXERCISE
47% incidence of osteoporosis in sedentary population
compared to 23% in hard physical labor occupations
(Brewer et al., 1983)
49
Osteoporosis, Activity and the Elderly
Rate of bone loss (50-72 yr olds, Lane et al., 1990)
4% over 2 years for runners
6-7% over 2 years for controls
However - rate of loss jumped to 10-13%
after stopped running
suggest substitute activities should provide
high intensity loads, low repetitions
(e.g. weight lifting)
50
