THE ATMOSPHERE:
COMPOSITION AND
STRUCTURE
The Atmosphere
The atmosphere is the envelope of gases that
surround our planet
It is a very thin layer compared to the radius of
the Earth
We refer to this layer informally as “air”
The majority of the energy that drives the
atmosphere is from the Sun.
The atmosphere receives most of this energy
from the surface.
Imbalances of energy drive the winds.
Eventually, all energy degrades down to friction.
Origin of the Atmosphere
Volcanoes release H2, CO2, H2Ov, N2, NH3,
CH4
No O2 or O3, so no land organisms!
One-celled aquatic organisms release CO2
to atmosphere when breaking down food
through fermentation
Simple aquatic plants took in CO2 and
released O2 to atmosphere via
photosynthesis
O3 formed from the O2
State of the Atmosphere
We commonly express the state of the
atmosphere by measuring it using the
following variables:
• Pressure
• Temperature
• Wind
• Humidity
• Cloud cover
• Precipitation type and amount
• Visibility (distance one can see horizontally)
Types of Measurements
Contact Measurements – Also called
in-situ measurements; A
measurement that is conducted by
sticking a probe into the medium
being measured (thermometer).
Remote Sensing – A measurement
conducted by remote means and not
from directly within the medium
being measured (satellites).
The Relationship Between Air
Pressure and Altitude
Pressure decreases
as you go up in
height.
The change in
pressure is not
constant. The
pressure decreases
exponentially with
increasing height.
Pressure & Density
Gravity pulls
gases toward
earth's surface,
and the whole
column of gases
exerts a pressure
of 1000
hectopascal
(hPa) at sea level.
Pressure and Density
Decrease with Height
Weather
Weather is the state of the
atmosphere at a particular time and
a particular place.
An example of weather information
would be the temperature in Manila
today at 7 p.m.
Climate
Climate is the long-term state of the
atmosphere at a particular location.
Can be expressed as averages and
extremes.
“Normal” conditions is simply a 30-year
average of that particular variable.
Examples of climate information would be:
• The normal high in Palawan on August 1 is 83
degrees.
• The record amount of precipitation in Palawan
on August 1 is 2.55 inches back in 1961.
More Definitions
Meteorology is the study of the
Earth’s atmosphere, its motions and
behavior
Climatology is the study of the
Earth’s climate, its past and future
Atmospheric Composition
Dry air (neglecting water vapor) is
composed of the following gases:
Nitrogen (N2) = 78%
Oxygen (O2) = 21%
Argon (Ar) = 1%
Trace Gases
Dust, bacteria, and other particulates
Atmospheric Composition
Trace Gases
• Gases that are only found by examining
a million or billion air molecules
• Examples include:
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) = 340 ppmv
Neon (Ne) = 18 ppmv
Helium (He) = 5 ppmv
Methane (CH4) = 2 ppmv
Hydrogen (H2) = 0.5 ppmv
* ppmv – parts per million in volume
Atmospheric Molecules
Note that the Oxygen, Nitrogen, and
Hydrogen that we breathe are not
single atoms of that gas, but instead
are two atoms of that gas bonded
together in what is called a diatomic
molecule.
Ozone is an example of a triatomic
molecule with three oxygen atoms.
Atmospheric Composition
The dry air components in the air are well-
mixed, meaning they do not vary widely
with location or time at the surface.
Water vapor (H2O) is a variable gas. You
will see it depends on temperature and the
availability of liquid water. A volume of air
can have between 0% and 4% water
vapor, and this varies both in time and
space.
Vertical Layers of the Atmosphere
The Earth’s atmosphere has 4 distinct
layers that are identified by the way
temperature changes with height.
These layers are:
- Troposphere
- Stratosphere
- Mesosphere
- Thermosphere
Atmospheric Layers
8 layers are
defined by
constant trends
in average air
temperature
(which changes
with pressure
and radiation),
where the outer
exosphere is
not shown.
Troposphere
This is the layer closest to the
Earth’s surface
Almost all the weather phenomenon
we know of occurs in this layer.
The depth of the troposphere varies
by the season (deeper in summer)
Temperature on average decreases
with height.
Stratosphere
The next layer above the troposphere
The boundary between the stratosphere
and troposphere is called the tropopause.
The ozone layer is found here
Some clouds can form here near the poles
Temperature increases with height
Very little mixing occurs between the
troposphere and stratosphere.
Mesosphere/Thermosphere
The mesosphere is the next layer above the
stratosphere.
Clouds (noctilucent) are rare in the mesosphere.
The thermosphere rests above the mesosphere,
and no clouds exist.
Temperature decreases with height in the
mesosphere and increases with height in the
thermosphere.
The highest temperatures for the atmosphere
occur in the thermosphere, but it doesn’t feel hot
because the atmosphere is so thin up there.
Atmospheric Density
Density and pressure in the
atmosphere decrease exponentially
with height
Approximately 75% of the total
atmosphere is in the troposphere
Approximately 99% of the
atmosphere is the troposphere and
stratosphere
Biogeochemical Cycles
The following are contributories
to the composition of the
atmosphere:
Nitrogen Cycle
Carbon Dioxide Cycle
Oxygen Cycle
Nitrogen Cycle
Carbon Cycle
Oxygen Cycle
Heat Transfers in the Atmosphere
Heat transfers
from high to
low temps.
There are
three means:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Heat Transfer - Conduction
Conduction occurs when
heat is transferred
molecule to molecule
Solids including wet soil are
good conductors
Calm air is a poor
conductor; the heat hardly
travels by conduction a few
centimeters from surface in
into the atmosphere.
But we know heat from
surface can reach
kilometers high.
Heat Transfer - Convection
It is because the atmosphere is seldom
calm; rather it often moves up and down.
Mass movement in vertical caries heat
with it
Heated air is less dense, expands, and
rises – starts thermals.
Cooler, denser air sinks to replace warm
air – completes convective cycle.
This vertical heat transfer is known as
convection.
Convective Thermals
Radiation
What is radiation? It is the energy in
transient and is also called radiant energy.
Recall we also said radiation is a means
of energy transfer in parallel to
conduction and convection.
Radiation is also viewed as stream of
particle called photons that carries energy.
As a means of transfer, radiation travels in
electromagnetic waves.
