CS 2210:0001 Discrete Structures
Sets and Functions
Fall 2017
Sukumar Ghosh
What is a set?
Definition. A set is an unordered collection of objects.
S = {2, 4, 6, 8, …}
COLOR = {red, blue, green, yellow}
Each object is called an element or a member of the set.
Well known Sets
Well known sets
N = {0, 1, 2, 3 …} the set of natural numbers
Z = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …} the set of integers
Z+ = {1, 2, 3, …} the set of positive integers
R = the set of real numbers
Set builders
A mechanism to define the elements of a set.
Belongs to,
an element of
This means, S = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19}
Venn diagram
i
e
u a
The set V of vowels
The universal set U contains all objects under consideration
Sets and subsets
The null set (or the empty set} ∅ contains no element.
A ⊆B (A is a subset of B) if every element is also an element of B.
Thus
{0, 1, 2} ⊆ N, S ⊆ S,
∅ ⊆ any set
A ⊂ B (called a proper subset of B) if A ⊆B and A ≠ B
The cardinality of S (|S|) is the number of distinct elements in S.
Power Set
Given a set S, its power set is the set of all subsets of S.
Let S = (a, b, c}
power set of S = {∅, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {a, c} {a, b, c}
Question. What is the cardinality of the power set of S?
Cartesian Product of Sets
Ordered pair. It is a pair (a, b) for which the order is important
(unlike a set)
Example. The coordinate (x, y) of a point. (3, 5) is not the same as
(5,3), so the order matters.
Cartesian Product. The Cartesian product of two sets A, B,
denoted by is the set of all ordered pairs
Where and . Thus
Example of Cartesian Product
Cartesian Product of Set (Example)
A = {a1, a2, a3} B= {b1, b2}
A ⨉ B = {(a1, b1), (a1, b2), (a2, b1), (a2, b2), (a3, b1), (a3, b2)}
We define A2 = A X A, A3 = A2 X A and so on.
What is {0, 1}3 ?
Union of Sets
Intersection of Sets
Set of elements that belong to both sets
Union and Intersection
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {0, 2, 5, 8}
Then A ⋃ B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8} (A union B)
And A ⋂ B = {2, 5} (A intersection B)
Disjoint Sets
Set difference & complement
Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {0, 2, 5, 8}
A – B = {x | x ∈A ∧ x ∉ B}
So, in this case, A – B = {1, 3, 4}
Also A = {x | x ∉ A}
Set difference
Complement
Set identities
Recall the laws (also called identities or theorems) with propositions (see page 27).
Each such law can be transformed into a corresponding law for sets.
Identity law
Replace ⋁ by ⋃
Domination law
Replace ⋀ by ⋂
Idempotent laws Replace ¬ by complementation
Replace F by the empty set
Double negation
Replace T by the Universal set U
Commutative law
Associative law
De Morgan’s law
Absorption law
Negation law
Set identities
Set identities
Example of set identity
Visualizing DeMorgan’s theorem
Visualizing DeMorgan’s theorem
Function
Let A, B be two non-empty sets. (Example: A = set of students,
B = set of integers). Then, a function f assigns exactly one element
of B to each element of A
function
Co-domain
domain
Also called mapping or transformation …
(As an example, if the function f is age, then it “maps” each student from set A
To an integer from B to like age (Bob) = 19, age (Alice) = 21 …}
Terminology
Example of the floor function
Examples
Exercises
Let x be an integer. Why is f not a function from R to R if
(a) f(x) = 1/x
(b) f(x) = x ½
(c) f(x) = ±(x2 + 1) ½
More examples
What is the distinction between co-domain and range?
One-to-one functions
The term injective is synonymous with one-to-one
Onto Functions
The term surjective is synonymous with onto.
Strictly increasing functions
Let where the set of real numbers
The function f is called strictly increasing if f(x) < f(y),
whenever x < y . One can define strictly decreasing
functions in the same way.
Is a strictly increasing function a one-to-one function?
Exercise
1-to-1 and onto function are called bijective.
Arithmetic Functions
Identity Function
Inverse Function
Inverse Function
Inverse functions can be defined only if the original function is
one-to-one and onto
Graph of a function
Let . Then the graph of is the set of ordered pairs
such that and that can be displayed as
a graph.
The floor function
Composition of functions
Note that f(g(x) is not necessarily equal to g(f(x)
Some common functions
Floor and ceiling functions
Exponential function ex
Logarithmic function log x
The function sqrt (x)
Question. Which one grows faster? Log x or sqrt (x)?
Learn about these from the book (and from other sources).
Exercises on functions
1. Let be real numbers. Then prove or disprove
Countable sets
Cardinality measures the number of elements in a set.
DEF. Two sets A and B have the same cardinality, if and only if
there is a one-to-one correspondence from A to B.
Can we extend this to infinite sets?
DEF. A set that is either finite or has the same cardinality
as the set of positive integers is called a countable set.
Countable sets
Example. Show that the set of odd positive integers is countable.
f(n) = 2n-1 (n=1 means f(n) = 1, n=2 means f(n) = 3 and so on)
Thus f : Z+ {the set of of odd positive integers}.
So it is a countable set. The cardinality of such an infinite countable
set is denoted by (called aleph null)
Larger and smaller infinities ….
Fun with infinite sets
Hilbert’s Grand Hotel
Accommodates a finite number of guests in a full hotel
Countable sets
Theorem. The set of rational numbers is countable.
1 3 4
Counting follows the
direction of the arrows, and
you cover all real numbers
Countable sets
Theorem. The set of real numbers is not countable.
(See pp 173-174 of your textbook)
Proof by contradiction. Consider the set of real numbers
between 0 and 1 and list them as
Create a new number
r = 0.d1.d2.d3.d4… where
(Here, r1 is the first number, r2 is the second number, and so on).
But r is a new number different from the rest! So how can you
assign a unique serial number to it?
