高等油層工程

Advanced Reservoir Engineering

開課班級: 碩博士班 (2007年秋季)

講授教師： 林再興
 目的
 講授石油及天然氣流體性質，以及生產石
油及天然氣所導致的油層壓力變化原理。

 討論壓力測試分析(井壓測試分析) ，以及
生產資料分析(生產遞減曲線分析) 。

 求得地層參數/預測未來產生產率/計算地
層的石油或天然的儲量及蘊藏量。
 Textbooks and references

 (A) Dake , L.P., Fundamentals of Reservoir

Engineering, revised edition, Elsevier Scientific
B.V., Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 2001.

 (B) Ahmed, T., and McKinney, P., Advanced

Reservoir Engineering, Gulf Publishing
Company, Houston, Texas, 2004

 (B) Craft, B.C., and Hawkins, M.F. , Revised

by Terry, R.E. , Applied Petroleum Reservoir
Engineering, Second edition., Prentice Hall ,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1991.
 Textbooks and references
 (C) Lee, J., Well Testing, SPE Textbook
series, Society of Petroleum Engineers of
AIME, Dallas, Texas, 2002.

 (D) 林國安等人，石油探採 (第四冊 – 油氣生產,

Chapter 24 ) ，中國石油股份有限公司訓練教材
叢書，中油訓練所，嘉義市， 2004.

 (E) Journal papers

 Advanced Reservoir Engineering
by
Ahmed, T., and McKinney, P

 Well testing analysis

 Water influx
 Unconventional gas reservoir
 Performance of oil reservoir
 Predicting oil reservoir
 Introduction to oil fieldeconomics
5
 大 網
 Introduction to reservoir engineering
- Gas reservoir
- PVT analysis for oil
- Material balance applied to oil

 The flow equations of single-phase and two-phase flow of hydrocarbon in

porous media
- Darcy’s law and applications
- The basic differential equation in a porous medium

 Solutions to the flow equations of hydrocarbon in porous media

- Steady and semi-steady states
- Unsteady state

 Pressure drawdown and buildup analysis for oil and gas wells

 Decline curve analysis

 Case study
 Part 1
Introduction to Reservoir Engineering

 The primary functions of a reservoir

engineer:
 the estimation of hydrocarbon in place
 the calculation of a recovery factor , and
 the attachment of a time scale to the recovery

 Note:
pressure/flow rate information →
parameters/future flow rate/future pressure
 Outlines of Reservoir Engineering
 (1) Introduction
 Petrophysical properties ( Rock properties)
 Fluid properties (gas, water, crude properties)
 Calculations of hydrocarbon volumes
 Fluid pressure regimes

 (2) Gas reservoirs

 Calculating gas in place by the volumetric method
 Calculating gas recovery factor
 Material balance calculation (Depletion & Water drive)
 Hydrocarbon phase behavior (gas condensate phase behavior)
 The gas equivalent of produced condensate and water

 (3) PVT analysis for oil

 Definition of the basic PVT parameters
 Determination of the basic PVT parameters in the lab. And
conversion for field operating conditions.
 Outlines of Reservoir Engineering – cont.

 (4) Material balance applied to oil

reservoirs
 General form of the material balance equation for a
hydrocarbon reservoir (Undersaturated and Saturated
reservoir)
 Reservoir drive mechanisms
 Solution gas drive
 Gas cap drive
 Natural water drive

 (5) Darcy’s law and applications

 Outlines of Reservoir Engineering – cont.

 (6) The basic differential equation for radial flow

in a porous medium
 Derivation of the basic radial flow equation
 Conditions of solution
 Linearization of radial flow equation

 (7) Well inflow equations for stabilized flow

conditions
 Semi steady state solution
 Steady state solution
 Generalized form of inflow equation (for semi steady state)
 Outlines of Reservoir Engineering – cont.

 (8) The constant terminal rate solution of the radial

diffusivity equation and its application to oil well
testing
 Constant terminal rate solution
 General Transient flow
 Semi steady state flow
 Superposition theorem; general theory of well testing
 The Matthews, Brons, Hazebroek pressure buildup theory
 Pressure buildup analysis techniques
 Multi-rate drawdown testing
 The effects of partial well completion
 After-flow analysis
 Outlines of Reservoir Engineering – cont.

 (9) Gas well testing

 - Linearization and solution of the basic differential equation
for the radial flow of a real gas
 - The Russell, Goodrich, et al. Solution technique
 - The Al-Hussainy, Ramey, Crawford solution technique
 - Pressure squared and pseudo pressure solution technique
 - Non-Darcy flow & determination of the non-darcy
coefficient
 - The constant terminal rate solution for the flow of a real gas
 - General theory of gas well testing
 - Multi-rate testing of gas well
 - Pressure building testing of gas wells
 - Pressure building analysis in solution gas drive reservoirs
 Outlines of Reservoir Engineering – cont.

 (10) Natural water influx

 - Steady state model
 - Unsteady state model
 - The van Everdingen and Hurst edge-water drive
 model
 - Bottom – water drive model
 - Pseudo steady state model (Fetkovich model)
 - Predicting the amount of water influx
 Fluid Pressure Regimes

The total pressure at any depth

= weight of the formation rock
+ weight of fluids (oil, gas or water)

[=] 1 psi/ft * depth(ft)

 Fluid Pressure Regimes

 Density of sandstone
gm 2.2lbm (0.3048 100cm)3
 2.7 3 
cm 1000 gm (1 ft)3
lbm 1slug
 168.202 3

ft 32.7lbm

slug
 5.22 3
ft
 Pressure gradient for sandstone

 Pressure gradient for sandstone

p  gD
p
 g
D
lbf
 5.22  32.2  168.084
ft 3
lbf 1 ft 2 lbf
 168.084 2  1.16 2
ft  ft 144in 2
in  ft
 1.16( psi / ft )
 Overburden pressure

 Overburden pressure (OP)

= Fluid pressure (FP) + Grain or matrix pressure (GP)

 OP=FP + GP

 In non-isolated reservoir
PW (wellbore pressure) = FP

 In isolated reservoir
PW (wellbore pressure) = FP + GP’
where GP’<=GP
 Normal hydrostatic pressure

 In a perfectly normal case , the water pressure at any depth

 Assume :(1) Continuity of water pressure to the surface
 (2) Salinity of water does not vary with depth.

dP
 P  ( ) water  D  14.7 [=] psia
dD

dP psi/ft for pure water

 ( ) water  0.4335
dD


 dP
( ) water  0.4335
 dD psi/ft for saline water
 Abnormal hydrostatic pressure
( No continuity of water to the surface)
dP
P  ( ) water  D  14.7  C
 dD [=] psia

 Normal hydrostatic pressure

c=0

 Abnormal (hydrostatic) pressure

c > 0 → Overpressure (Abnormal high pressure)
 c < 0 → Underpressure (Abnormal low pressure)
 Conditions causing abnormal fluid pressures

 Conditions causing abnormal fluid pressures in enclosed water

bearing sands include
 Temperature change ΔT = +1℉ → ΔP = +125 psi in a
sealed fresh water system
 Geological changes – uplifting; surface erosion
 Osmosis between waters having different salinity, the
sealing shale acting as the semi permeable membrane in
this ionic exchange; if the water within the seal is more
saline than the surrounding water the osmosis will cause
the abnormal high pressure and vice versa.
Are the water bearing sands abnormally pressured ?

 If so, what effect does this have on the extent of any

hydrocarbon accumulations?
 Hydrocarbon pressure regimes

 In hydrocarbon pressure regimes

dP
( ) water  0.45
 dD psi/ft
dP
( ) oil  0.35
 dD psi/ft
dP
( ) gas  0.08
 dD psi/ft
 Pressure Kick

5000x0.45+15

2265Psi 2369Psi

P
5000
5100 GAS
5200 Pg=P0 =2385Psi GOC G O C (5200ft)
5300
O IL
5400
5500 OW C O W C (5500ft)
Pg=Pw =2490Psi W ater

D
5500x0.45+15

 Assumes a normal hydrostatic pressure regime Pω= 0.45 × D + 15

 In water zone
 at 5000 ft Pω(at5000) = 5000 × 0.45 + 15 = 2265 psia
 at OWC (5500 ft) Pω(at OWC) = 5500 × 0.45 + 15 = 2490 psia
 Pressure Kick

5000x0.45+15

2265Psi 2369Psi

P
5000
5100 GAS
5200 Pg=P0 =2385Psi GOC G O C (5200ft)
5300
O IL
5400
5500 OW C O W C (5500ft)
Pg=Pw =2490Psi W ater

D
5500x0.45+15

 In oil zone Po = 0.35 x D + C

 at D = 5500 ft , Po = 2490 psi
 → C = 2490 – 0.35 × 5500 = 565 psia
 → Po = 0.35 × D + 565
 at GOC (5200 ft) Po (at GOC) = 0.35 × 5200 + 565 = 2385 psia
 Pressure Kick

 In gas zone Pg = 0.08 D + 1969 (psia)

 at 5000 ft Pg = 0.08 × 5000 + 1969 = 2369 psia
 Pressure Kick

2265Psia 2450Psia
P P
5000 5000
5100 GAS 5100
5200 hydrostatic GOC 5200 G as pressure
pressure gradient GAS
5300 5300
O IL
5400 5400
5500 OW C 5500 GW C
P0=Pw =2490Psia W ater Pg=Pw =2490Psia
W ater
D D

 In gas zone Pg = 0.08 D + C

 At D = 5500 ft, Pg = Pω = 2490 psia
 2490 = 0.08 × 5500 + C
 C = 2050 psia
 → Pg = 0.08 × D + 2050
 At D = 5000 ft
 Pg = 2450 psia
 GWC error from pressure measurement
 Pressure = 2500 psia Pressure = 2450 psia
 at D = 5000 ft at D = 5000 ft
 in gas-water reservoir in gas-water reservoir
 GWC = ? GWC = ?
 Sol. Sol.
 Pg = 0.08 D + C Pg = 0.08 D + C
 C = 2500 – 0.08 × 5000 C = 2450 – 0.08 × 5000
 = 2100 psia = 2050 psia
 → Pg = 0.08 D + 2100 → Pg = 0.08 D + 2050
 Water pressure Pω = 0.45 D + 15 Water pressure Pω = 0.45 D + 15
 At GWC Pg = Pω At GWC Pg = Pω
 0.08 D + 2100 = 0.45 D + 15 0.08 D + 2050 = 0.45 D + 15
 D = 5635 ft (GWC) D = 5500 ft (GWC)
 Results from Errors in GWC or GOC or OWC

 GWC or GOC or OWC location

affecting
volume of hydrocarbon OOIP
affecting
OOIP or OGIP
affecting
development plans
 Volumetric Gas Reservoir Engineering

 Gas is one of a few substances whose state, as

defined by pressure, volume and temperature
(PVT)

 One other such substance is saturated steam.

 The equation of state for an ideal gas

pV  nRT  (1.13)

(Field units used in the industry)
p [=] psia; V[=] ft3; T [=] OR absolute temperature
n [=] lbm moles; n=the number of lb moles, one lb mole is
the molecular weight of the gas expressed in pounds.
R = the universal gas constant
[=] 10.732 psia∙ ft3 / (lbmmole∙0R)

Eq (1.13) results form the combined efforts of Boyle, Charles,

Avogadro and Gay Lussac.
 The equation of state for real gas

 The equation of Van der Waals (for one lb mole of gas

a
( p  2 )(V  b)  RT  (1.14)
V

 where a and b are dependent on the nature of the gas.

 The principal drawback in attempting to use eq. (1.14)
to describe the behavior of real gases encountered in
reservoirs is that the maximum pressure for which the
equation is applicable is still far below the normal
range of reservoir pressures
 The equation of state for real gas

 the Beattie-Bridgeman equation

 the Benedict-Webb-Rubin equation
 the non-ideal gas law
 Non-ideal gas law

pV  nzRT  (1.15)

 Where z = z-factor =gas deviation factor

 =supercompressibility factor

Va Actual volume of n moles of gas at T and P
z 
Vi Ideal volume of n moles of gas at T and P

z  f ( P, T , composition)
composition   g  specific gravity(air  1)
 Determination of z-factor
 There are three ways to determination z-factor :

 (a)Experimental determination

 (b)The z-factor correlation of standing and

katz

 (c)Direct calculation of z-factor

 (a) Experimental determination
 n mole s of gas

 p=1atm; T=reservoir temperature; => V=V0

 pV=nzRT
 z=1 for p=1 atm
 =>14.7 V0=nRT


 n mole of gas

 p>1atm; T=reservoir temperature; => V=V

 pV=nzRT
 pV=z(14.7 V0) pV
z p scV0 pV
 z
pV
14.7V0 z scT zT p scV0
 By varying p and measuring V, the isothermal z(p) function can be
 readily by obtained.
 (b)The z-factor correlation of standing and katz
 Requirement:
 Knowledge of gas composition or gas gravity
 Naturally occurring hydrocarbons: primarily
paraffin series CnH2n+2
 Non-hydrocarbon impurities: CO2, N2 and H2
 Gas reservoir: lighter members of the paraffin series, C1
 and C2 > 90% of the volume.
 The Standing-Katz Correlation
 knowing Gas composition (ni)
  Critical pressure (Pci)
 Critical temperature (Tci) of each component
  ( Table (1.1) and P.16 ) 
  Pseudo critical pressure (Ppc)
 Pseudo critical temperature (Tpc) for the mixture
Ppc   ni Pci
 i

T pc   ni Tci
i
 P
  Pseudo reduced pressure (Ppr) Ppr 
Ppc
 Pseudo reduced temperature (Tpr)
T
 Tpr   const.(Isothermal )
Tpc

  Fig.1.6; p.17  z-factor

 (b’)The z-factor correlation of standing and katz

 For the gas composition is not available and the gas gravity
(air=1) is available.
 The gas gravity (air=1)
 (  g)
  fig.1.7 , p18

 Pseudo critical pressure (Ppc)

 Pseudo critical temperature (Tpc)
 (b’)The z-factor correlation of standing and katz
P
Ppr 
  Pseudo reduced pressure (Ppr) Ppc
T
 Pseudo reduced temperature (Tpr) Tpr   const.(Isothermal )
Tpc

  Fig1.6 p.17

  z-factor
 The above procedure is valided only if impunity (CO2,N2 and
H2S) is less then 5% volume.
 (c) Direct calculation of z-factor

 The Hall-Yarborough equations, developed using the Starling-Carnahan

equation of state, are
1.2 (1t ) 2
0.06125Ppr te
z (1.20)
y
 where Ppr= the pseudo reduced pressure
 t=1/Tpr Tpr=the pseudo reduced temperature
 y=the “reduced” density which can be obtained as the
solution of the equation as followed:

1.2 (1t )2 y  y2  y3  y4
 0.06125Ppr te   (14.76t  9.76t 2  4.58t 3 ) y 2
(1  y ) 3

 (90.7t  242.2t 2  42.4t 3 ) y ( 2.182.82t )  0(1.21)

This non-linear equation can be conveniently solved for y using the simple
Newton-Raphson iterative technique.
 (c) Direct calculation of z-factor
 The steps involved in applying thus are:
 make an initial estimate of yk, where k is an iteration counter (which in this
case is unity, e.q. y1=0.001
 substitute this value in Eq. (1.21);unless the correct value of y has been
initially selected, Eq. (1.21) will have some small, non-zero value Fk.
 (3) using the first order Taylor series expansion, a better
estimate of y can be determined as

k 1 Fk
y y 
k
k
(1.22)
 where dF
dy
dF k 1  4 y  4 y 2  4 y 3  y 4
  (29.52t  19.52t 2  9.16t 3 ) y
dy (1  y ) 4

 (2.18  2.82t )(90.7t  242.2t 2  42.4t 3 ) y (1.182.82t ) (1.23)

 (4) iterate, using eq. (1.21) and eq. (1.22), until satisfactory
convergence is obtained(5) substitution of the correct value of y in
eq.(1.20)will give the z-factor.
 (5) substitution of the correct value of y in eq.(1.20)will give the z-factor.
 Application of the real gas equation of state
 Equation of state of a real gas pV  nzRT  (1.15)
 This is a PVT relationship to relate surface to reservoir volumes of
hydrocarbon.
(1) the gas expansion factor E,
Vsc volume of n moles of gas at s tan dard conditions
E 
V volume of n moles of gas at reservoir conditions

 Real gas equation for n moles of gas at standard conditions

p scVsc  nz sc RTsc
nz sc RTsc
  V sc 
p sc
 Real gas equation for n moles of gas at reservoir conditions
 pV  nzRT V 
nzRT
nz sc RT sc
p
 > V p sc nz sc RT sc p Tsc p 519.6  
E  sc     (note : z  1)
zT  14.7
sc
V nzRT nzRTp sc zTp sc
p
> p
 E  35.35 [] surface volume/reservoir volume

zT [=] SCF/ft3 or STB/bbl
 Example

 Reservoir condition:
P=2000psia; T=1800F=(180+459.6)=639.60R; z=0.865
> 2000
E  35.35  127.8
0.865  639.6 surface volume/reservoir
or SCF/ft3 or STB/bbl


OGIP  V (1  S wi ) Ei
 (2) Real gas density

m  V m nM
 
V V
 where n=moles; M=molecular weight)
nM MP
  M gas P
nzRT zRT  gas 
p z gas RT

 at any p and T
M gas P
 For gas  gas 
z gas RT
For air M air p

 air 
z air RT


M gas p M gas ( M ) gas
 gas z gas RT Z gas g  z
g  
 air M gas p M air ( M ) air
z air RT Z air Z
 (2) Real gas density

(M ) gas
 g  z
(M ) air
Z

 At standard conditions zair = zgas = 1

 gas M gas M gas
g    (1.28)
 air M air 28.97

 in general  g  0.6 ~ 0.8

M gas   g  28.97  gas   g   air

 (a) If  is
g known, then or ,

M gas   ni M i
(b) If the gas composition is known, then i
M gas
g 
28.97
 gas   g   air

where (  air ) sc  0.0763 lbm

ft 3
 (3)Isothermal compressibility of a real gas
nzRT
pV  nzRT V
p
 nRTzp 1 (note : z  f ( p))

V z V nzRT nRT z
 nRTz[ p 2 ]  nRTp 1  2 
p p p p p p

V nzRT 1 1 z 1 1 z
 (  )  V (  )
p p p z p p z p

1 V 1 1 1 z
Cg     [V (  )]
V p V p z p

1 1 z
Cg  
p z p

1
Cg  1 1 z
p since  p.24, fig.1.9
p z p
 Exercise 1.1 - Problem

 Exercise1.1 Gas pressure gradient in the

reservoir
 (1) Calculate the density of the gas, at
standard conditions, whose
composition is listed in the table 1-1.
 (2) what is the gas pressure gradient in
the reservoir at 2000psia and
1800F(z=0.865)
 Exercise 1.1 -- solution -1
 (1) Molecular weight of the gas
M gas   ni M i  19.91
M gas 19.91
g    0.687
i
28.97 28.97

since  gas
g    gas   g   air
 air
  gas  0.687  0.0763(lbm ft 3 )  0.0524(lbm ft 3 )
 or from
pV  nzRT
pVM  nMzRT  mzRT
m pM
 
V zRT
Psc 14.7  19.91
 At standard condition  gas    0.0524(lbm ft 3 )
z sc RTsc 1 10.73  519.6
 Exercise 1.1 -- solution -2

 (2) gas in the reservoir conditions

pV  nzRT pVM  nMzRT  mzRT

m pM 2000  19.91
    6.707(lbm ft 3 )
V zRT 0.865  10.73  (459.6  180)


 Exercise 1.1 -- solution -3
p  gD dp  gdD
lbm 1slug ft
dp
 g  (6.707 )32.2
s2
dD ft 3 32.2lbm

slug ft
 6.707
ft 3 s 2

lb f
 6.707
ft 3

lbf 1 1 ft 2
 6.707 2
ft ft 144in 2


lb f 1
 0.0465 2  0.0465 psi
ft
in ft
 Gas Material Balance: Recovery Factor
 Material balance


Production = OGIP (GIIP) - Unproduced gas

 (SC) (SC) (SC)
 Case 1：no water influx (volumetric

 depletion reservoirs)
 Case 2：water influx (water drive reservoirs)
 Volumetric depletion reservoirs -- 1

 No water influx into the reservoir from the adjoining aquifer.

 Gas initially in place (GIIP) or Initial gas in place（IGIP）
 ＝ G ＝ Original gas in place （OGIP）
 [=] Standard Condition Volume

 G  V (1  s wc ) Ei [] SCF
pi
where Ei  35.37 [] SCF / ft 3
z i Ti
 Material Balance （at standard conditions）
 Production ＝ GIIP － Unproduced gas
 （SC） （SC） （SC）
G 
G p  G     E (1.33)
 Ei 

 Where G/Ei = GIIP in reservoir volume or reservoir volume filled with gas ＝
HCPV
 Volumetric depletion reservoirs -- 2
Gp E
  1  (1.34)
G Ei

sin ce E  35.37
p
 SCF
zT ft 3
p p
Gp 35.37
  1 zT  1  z note :T  Ti  const .
G p pi
35.37 i
z i Ti zi
p pi  Gp 
  1  (1.35)
z zi  G 
Gp
where  the fractional gas re cov ery at any stage during depletion
G
 Gas re cov ery factor

p pi  pi 1 
  
  
Gp
z zi  zi G 

 G
In Eq.（1.33） HCPV   const . ?
Ei

 HCPV≠const. because:
 1. the connate water in reservoir will expand

 2. the grain pressure increases as gas

 (or fluid) pressure declines
 OP  FP  GP  (1.3)
d ( FP)   d (GP) p.3 ~ p.4

 d ( HCPV )  d (G / Ei )
 dVw  dV f (1.36)

 where Vw  initial (connate water volume)

V f  initial pore volume
negative sign ""  exp ansion of water leads
to a reduction in HCPV
 1 V f
cf  
V f  GP GP GP

1 V f
 cf  
V f (p ) Vf
pore vol.

1 V f
 cf 
V f p
GP GP

 dV f  c f  V f  dp
Vw

1 Vw 1 dVw
cw   
Vw d FP  Vw dp
 dVw  c w  Vw  dp FP

FP Vf FP

FP=gas pressure
FP
FP

FP Vw FP

FP=gas pressure
FP
 G 
d    d HCPV   c wVw dp  c f V f dp
 Ei 
Since
HCPV G
V f  PV  
1  S wc  Ei 1  S wc 
HCPV G S wc
Vw  PV  S wc  S wc 
1  S wc  Ei 1  S wc 
G G S wc G
 d    c w dp  c f dp
 Ei  Ei 1  S wc  Ei 1  S wc 
G G G  S wc 1 
         c w  cf  p
 Ei  initial  Ei  t  Ei  initial  1  S wc  1  S wc 
G  G G c w S wc  c f p
        
 Ei  t  Ei  initial  Ei  initial 1  S wc 
G G  c w S wc  c f p 
      1  
 i  t  i  initial 
E E 1  S wc  
 G
G p  G  E  (1.33)
Ei
G  cw S wc  c f p 
 Gp  G  1  E
Ei  1  S wc  
Gp  cw S wc  c f  E
  1  1  
G  1  S wc  Ei
For cw  3 10 6 psi 1 ; c f  10 10 6 psi 1 and S wc  0.2
cw S wc  c f
 1  1  0.013  0.987
1  S wc
Gp E Gp E
  1  0.987 computing with  1
G Ei G Ei
 1.3% difference
 p/z plot
 From Eq. (1.35) such as
p/z
p pi  G p 
 1    (1.35)
z zi  G 
p pi pi
   Gp Abandon
z zi zi G pressure pab
0
Gp G
p
In v.s Gp plot
z p/z

Y=a+mx
p
y 
z
x  Gp
0 Gp/G=RF 1.0
pi
 m A straight line in p/z v.s Gp plot means that the reservoir is
z i G a depletion type
pi
a
 Water drive reservoirs
 If the reduction in reservoir pressure leads to an expansion of
adjacent aquifer water, and consequent influx into the reservoir,
the material balance equation must then be modified as:
 Production = GIIP － Unproduced gas
 （SC） （SC） （SC）
 Gp ＝ G － （HCPV-We）E
 Or
 Gp＝ G－ （G/Ei－We）E
 where We= the cumulative amount of water influx resulting
from the pressure drop.
 Assumptions:
 No difference between surface and reservoir volumes of
water influx
 Neglect the effects of connate water expansion and pore
volume reduction.
 No water production
 Water drive reservoirs
With water production
 G 
G p  G    We  W p  Bw  E
 Ei 
 Gp
pi 
1  
p
   zi G   (1.41)
z WE
1 e i
G

 where We*Ei /G represents the fraction of the initial hydrocarbon

pore volume flooded by water and is,
therefore, always less then unity.
 Water drive reservoirs
 Gp 
pi
1  
p
 
zi G 
 (1.41)
z  We E i 
1  
 G 

 since  We Ei 
1   1
 G 

p pi  G p 
  1   in water flux reservoirs
z zi  G 
Comparing

p pi  G p 
 1  
in depletion type reservoir
z zi  G 
 Water drive reservoirs
pi  Gp 
1  
p

zi  G 
 (1.41)
z  We E i 
1  
 G 

 In eq.(1.41) the following two parameters to be determined

G; We
 History matching or “aquifer fitting” to find We
 Aquifer modelfor an aquifer whose dimensions are of the same
order of magnitude as the reservoir itself.
We  cWp
 Where W=the total volume of water and depends primary on the
geometry of the aquifer.

ΔP=the pressure drop at the original reservoir –aquifer boundary

 Water drive reservoirs

 The material balance in such a case would be as shown by plot A

in fig1.11, which is not significantly different from the depletion
line
 For case B & C in fig 1.11（p.30） =>Chapter 9
 Bruns et. al method
 This method is to estimate GIIP in a water drive reservoir
 From Eq. (1.40) such as

G 
G p  G    We  E  (1.40)
 Ei 
GE
 Gp  G   We E
Ei
 E
 G p  G 1    We E
 Ei 
 E
 G 1    G p  We E
 Ei 
Gp We E
G 
 E   E
1   1  
 Ei   Ei 
Gp We E Gp We E
or G (or G a )
 E    E is plot as function of 
1   1 
E
 1   E
1  
 Ei   Ei   Ei   Ei 
We E
or Ga  G 
 E
1  
 Ei 
 Bruns et. al method
Gp We E
(or Ga )
 E is plot as function of 
1   E
1  
 Ei   Ei 

 The result should be a straight line, provided the correct aquifer model has been
selected.
 The ultimate gas recovery depends both on
 (1) the nature of the aquifer ,and
 (2) the abandonment pressure.

 The principal parameters in gas reservoir engineering:

 (1) the GIIP
 (2) the aquifer model
 (3) abandonment pressure
 (4) the number of producing wells and their mechanical define
Hydrocarbon phase behavior
Hydrocarbon phase behavior
 Hydrocarbon phase behavior
C---------＞D--------------＞E

Residual saturation (flow ceases)

Liquid H.C deposited in the reservoir
Retrograde liquid Condensate

E---------------＞F

Re-vaporization of the liquid condensate ?

NO!
Because H.C remaining in the reservoir
increase
Composition of gas reservoir changed
Phase envelope shift SE direction producing Wet gas
Condensate reservoir, (at scf)
Thus, inhibiting re-vaporization.
pt. c, Dry gas
injection

displace the wet gas

until dry gas break
Keep p above
through occurs in the
dew pt. Δp small
producing wells
 Equivalent gas volume

 The material balance equation of eq(1.35) such as

p pi  G p 
 1  
z zi  G 
 Assume that a volume of gas in the reservoir was
produced as gas at the surface.

 If, due to surface separation, small amounts of liquid

hydrocarbon are produced, the cumulative liquid
volume must be converted into an equivalent gas
volume and added to the cumulative gas production to
give the correct value of Gp for use in the material
balance equation.
 Equivalent gas volume
 If n lbm –mole of liquid have been produced, of molecular
weight M, then the total mass of liquid is
nM   o  w  liquid volume
 where γ0 = oil gravity (water =1)
 ρw ＝ density of water （=62.43 lbm/ft3）
 lbm 
 0 62.4    V0 ft 3
3 
 
 o  w  Vo  ft  62.4 0V0
n  
M M lbm / lbm  mole  M

62.4 0V0 bbls  5.61458 ft 3

n
M 1 bbl
0Np
 n  350.5 where N p []bbls
M
nRT  0 N p RT sc  0 N p  10.73  520
Vsc   350.5  350.5
p sc M p sc M  14.7
0N p
 Vsc  1.33  10 5 N p bbls
M
Equivalent gas volume
 Condensate Reservoir
 The dry gas material balance equations can also be
applied to gas condensate reservoir, if the single
phase z-factor is replaced by the ,so-called ,two phase
z-factor. This must be experimentally determined in
the laboratory by performing a constant volume
depletion experiment.

 Volume of gas ＝G scf , as charge to a PVT cell

 P＝Pi＝initial pressure （above dew point）
 T＝Tr＝reservoir temperature
 Condensate Reservoir
 p decrease  by withdraw gas from the cell, and measure gas Gp’
 Until the pressure has dropped to the dew point
p
Z 2  phase   (1.46)
pi  G '
1  p 
zi  G 
p pi  Gp ' 
 
 1   (1.35)
z zi  G 
p
z
pi  G '
1  p 
zi  G 

The latter experiment, for determining the single phase z-factor, implicitly
assumes that a volume of reservoir fluids, below dew point pressure, is
produced in its entirety to the surface.
 Condensate Reservoir

 In the constant volume depletion experiment, however, allowance is made

for the fact that some of the fluid remains behind in the reservoir as liquid
condensate, this volume being also recorded as a function of pressure
during the experiment. As a result, if a gas condensate sample is analyzed
using both experimental techniques, the two phase z-factor determined
during the constant volume depletion will be lower than the single phase z-
factor.

 This is because the retrograde liquid condensate is not included in the

cumulative gas production Gp’ in equation（1.46）, which is therefore
lower than it would be assuming that all fluids are produced to the surface,
as in the single phase experiment.
 油層工程
 蘊藏量評估
 體積法
 物質平衡法
 衰減曲線
 油層模擬

 壓力分析(隨深度變化，或壓力梯度),
例如, 求氣水界面。

 物質平衡法

 井壓測試分析(暫態)
 （求k、s、re、xf、氣水界面、地層異質性）
Pressure buildup
Pressure drawdown

 水驅計算(water drive)

78