Analog System Design

Sarun Soman
Asst: Professor
EEE Department
 Op amp
• Op amp (Operational Amplifier)
• Term coined by John R Ragazzini in 1947.

Op amp IC
Vacuum Tube Op amp

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Op amp
• Why op amp?
• It can perform mathematical operations like differentiation, integration,
summation etc.
• Op amp symbol
• Op amp has 2 inputs and one o/p unlike other amplifiers like
CG,CD,CS.
• + and – sign are used to distinguish the inputs form each other.

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Op amp working
•Case -1
• Input applied to positive input terminal only.
• + sign indicates gain is +ve .
• Input/output characteristics is as shown

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Op amp working
•Case-2
• Input is applied to –ve terminal only.
• -ve sign indicates gain is negative .
• Input/output characteristics is as shown.

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Op amp Input Terminals

Non-inverting input

Inverting input

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Practical Op amp Symbol

Note: Op amp IC doesn't have a ground pin

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Block Diagram Representation of
Typical
Op ampInput Stage:
• Provides most of the voltage
gain
• High input resistance.
Intermediate Stage
• Direct coupling DC voltage
level well above GND level.
Level Translator
• Shifts the DC level back to
GND level
Output Stage
• Raises current supply
capability of op amp.
• Low output resistance.

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Motorola MC1435 Op amp
Input Stage:
• Provides most of the voltage
gain
• High input resistance.
Intermediate Stage
• Direct coupling DC voltage
level well above GND level.
Level Translator
• Shifts the DC level back to
GND level
Output Stage
• Raises current supply
capability of op amp.
• Low output resistance.

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Note: For IE lab-II µA741C op amp IC will be used

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Reference Books
• Sergio Franco, “Design with Operational Amplifiers and Analog
Integrated Circuits”, TMH, 3e, 2005
• J. Millman & A. Grabel, "Microelectronics"- 2nd Edition McGraw Hill.
• Robert. F. Coughlin &Fredrick F. Driscoll, “Operational Amplifiers and
Linear Integrated Circuits”, PHI/Pearson, 2009 2nd edition

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Amplifier Fundamentals
• Amplifier is a two port device.
• The most common is voltage amplifier.
• Each port can be modelled with Thevenin equivalent.
• Input port modelled using resistance (input resistance).
• Output port modelled using a VCVS and series resistor .
• output resistance.

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Amplifier Fundamentals
• Source to load gain

• If and then

• For an ideal amplifier voltage drop across and must be zero.

• Possible only if and

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The Ideal Op amp
• Ideal Op amp has infinite open loop gain.().
• Input impedance =
• Output impedance = 0
• Input currents =0

Ideal Op amp model

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Non-ideal Op amp
•741 Op amp
• Open loop gain = 200000
• Input impedance = 2MΩ Non-Ideal Op amp model

• Output impedance= 75Ω

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Negative Feedback
•

Closed loop gain

0<
Using negative feedback amplifiers can be designed with the desired gain.

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Op amp based circuits
• First assume an ideal op amp to understand underlying principles.
• Subsequently examine the effect of finite gain on performance.

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Amplifiers using op amps
• Voltage gain of transistor based amplifiers depends load resistor and
other parameters(eg.).
• These parameters vary considerably with temperature.
• Voltage gain may vary .
• When high precision is required in voltage gain Op amp based
amplifiers can be used(eg. A/D converters).

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Non inverting Amplifier (Ideal)
• Assume Ideal Op amp
• Input applied to +ve terminal.
• A voltage divider returns a fraction of the output voltage to the
inverting input.
• ? (virtual short)

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Voltage Gain
• Voltage across due to virtual short.
• Current through
• Input current drawn by Op amp is zero.
• Same current flows through .
• Expression for output voltage.

or
Note : the amplifier is independent of

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Non inverting Amplifier (non-ideal)
• open loop gain
• Closed loop gain
• Assume non-ideal Op amp ()
• ?

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Non-Inverting Amplifier (special
case)
• Consider ideal Op amp.
• Assume and .
•
• The amplifier turns into unity-gain amplifier.
• Output follows the input, voltage follower.

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Application of voltage follower
• Voltage to be applied to load.
• To eliminate loading effect voltage follower can be
used.

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Inverting Amplifier (Ideal)
• +ve terminal is grounded.
• Open loop gain
• must be very small.
• , terminal grounded.
• also must be close to zero (virtual ground).

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Inverting Amplifier (Ideal)
• or

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DC offset (Non ideal OP amp)
• For ideal Op amp if .
• For non ideal Op amp zero input difference may not give a zero output.
• The graph is offset to the right or to left.
• , only if input difference is raised to certain voltage called input offset voltage

Ideal Op amp
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DC offset (Non ideal OP amp)
What causes offset?
• Two transistors never match exactly in their characteristics.
• The BJT sensing the two inputs may display slightly different base-emitter
voltages.
• Offset can be modelled using a single voltage source placed in series
with one of the inputs.

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Effect of offset voltage on integrator
• Apply superposition theorem, assume .
• (virtual short)
• Current through .
• Voltage across capacitor:
X

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Effect of offset voltage on integrator
• At ,
• At , (Op amp saturates).
A non ideal integrator has integrated the input DC offset voltage and
reached saturation.

How to fix this problem?

• The issue is with DC offset voltage.
• Provide a low impedance path at low frequencies.
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Practical Integrator
• Add a resistor in parallel with .

• How does affect the integration function?

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Transfer Function

Does it look like an Integrator.

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Observations
• At very low frequencies:
• Capacitor offers very high impedance.
• Current flows through instead of .
• It acts like a normal inverting amplifier.
• offset gets amplified by a factor (Op amp doesn't saturate).
• At high frequencies:
• Capacitor offers very low impedance.
• Current flows through
• It acts as an integrator.

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Frequency Response

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Frequencies
•3dB frequency

Unity gain frequency

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Problem
Design a practical integrator with DC gain 10 and 3dB frequency 5KHz.

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Open loop frequency response curve of
Op amp
• An ideal op amp has infinite open loop gain and infinite bandwidth.
• Non-ideal Op amp:
• Limited open loop gain(100dB for LM741).
• Limited Band width (1MHz for LM 741).
• The gain is 100dB only till 10Hz and rolls off at
a rate -20dB/decade.
• Because of 25pF internal compensating capacitor.

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Inside LM741

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Gain Bandwidth Product(GBP)
• GBP is always constant.

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Non Ideal Differentiator frequency
response
• The gain cannot rise indefinitely
• At high frequency it will follow the open loop response
of the Op amp.
• At , gain is zero, effect of DC offset
voltage is nil.

Ideal Differentiator

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Non Ideal Differentiator
• Two issues with non ideal differentiator:
1. Input impedance decreases with increase in frequency.

2. Amplifies high frequency noise.

How to improve the circuit?
2. Add a resistor in series with .
•
2. Add a passive element in parallel with , its impedance must decrease with
increase in frequency.

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Practical Differentiator
• unity gain frequency of differentiator
• - frequency at which gain starts to roll of @ -20dB/decade
• - unity gain frequency of Op amp (1MHz).
• Design differentiator such that:

Practical differentiator frequency response

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Problem on differentiator
Design a differentiator to differentiate the input signal that varies input
frequency from 100Hz to 1KHz.

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Current to Voltage converter
• Also known as trans-resistance amplifier.

• Magnitude of the gain is also called sensitivity of the converter.

• Sensitivity: amount of o/p voltage change for a given i/p current
change.
• For a sensitivity of 1V/mA, use .

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Application
• Photo detector amplifiers.
• Incident light is converted to current.
• The ckt converts the current to voltage.

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Voltage to current converter
• Also known as trans-conductance amplifier.
• Two types
• Floating load.
• Grounded load.

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Floating Load V to I Converter

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Application
R

•1. Driving LED’s. V in

• Current through LED varies proportional to .

• Brightness of different LED’s can be testes for a constant current.

2. Finding matched pair of diodes. -V D +

V 0
Place different diodes to get the same . R

V in

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Revisiting Difference Amplifiers
• For a true difference amplifier.

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Revisiting Difference Amplifiers
•- common mode signal.
- differential mode signal.
• Consider the model for analysis.

- differential model gain.

- common mode gain.
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Figure of merit
• CMRR- common mode rejection ratio.

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 Effect of resistor mismatch
1.If resistors are not perfectly matched, common mode signal also gets amplified.
2. Using discrete resistors the minimum tolerance is 1%.

How to solve this issue.?

use monolithic IC

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Limitation with monolithic IC
• The gain is fixed.
• INA105 is unity gain amplifier.
• Low input impedance.

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Improving the input impedance
• Use unity gain follower at both the inputs.
• Very high input impedance.
• Draw back. V 1

• Gain is fixed.
R 2

V 0
R 1

R 1

R 2

V 2
M o n o lith ic I C

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 Variable gain
• Use non-inverting amplifier instead of unity gain follower.
R 4 R 3
V 1

V 1
R 3

R 2 R 2
R 4
V 0 V 0
R 1
R 1

R R 5 R 1
1

R 5 R 3 R R 2
2

R 3
V 2 V M o n o lit h ic I C
M o n o lit h ic I C 2

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Draw back of the modified cicuit
• The first stage will amplify common mode signal also.

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Improved circuit

• The first stage will amplify only differential mode signal.

• It is called Instrumentation Amplifier.
• All the resistors need to be matched properly
• Used in process control and biomedicine.

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• cc

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Active filters
• Ideal filter characteristics

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Limitations of passive filter

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Standard second order response

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Quality factor (Q)

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Frequency Response
•

For low pass filter

Note: the coefficients must be real to realize the ckt in hardware

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Filter approximations

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Filter polynomials
• Denominator polynomials with

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• For Butterworth response the Q must be 0.707

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Second Order Butterworth Low pass
filter
• A second order filter can be realised by cascading two first order
passive filter and connect to an Op amp.
• Draw back
• Maximum attainable Q value.
• Cannot implement Butterworth, Chebyshev and other filters.
• The filter table indicates that Q is greater than 0.5 in many cases.
R 1 R f

V 0
V in V A V 1

R 2 R 3

C C 3
2

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Second Order Butterworth Low pass
filter
• The solution was proposed by R.P Sallen and E.L. Key in 1955.
• Sallen-Key architecture.
• Solution:
• Use +ve feedback in a controlled manner.
• This way any value of Q can be obtained. R 1 R f

V 0
V in V A V 1

R 2 R 3

C C 3
2

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Working Principle
• At low frequencies and are open circuit
• Input signal is amplifies by a factor .
• At high frequencies and are short circuit.

• Near cut-off frequency impedance of and is same as and .+ve

feedback through dominates and enhances Q value.

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LPF problem
•Design and implement order Butterworth LPF with gain of 10 and
frequency

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High Pass Filter

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Band Pass Filter

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Band Pass Filter
• A band pass filter has a passband between two cut-off frequencies.
• - low cut-off frequency, - high cut-off frequency.
• Two types of Band pass filters:
• Wide Band Pass.
• Narrow Band Pass.
• Q>10- Wide Band Pass
• Q<10- Narrow Band Pass
,

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Wide Band Pass Filter
• Formed by cascading high pass and low pass.

• To obtain -20db/decade band pass:

• Cascade first order high pass & low pass.
• Order N=2
• To obtain -40db/decade:
• Cascade second order high pass & low pass.
• Order N=4.

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Problem
• Design and implement order Butterworth Band pass filter with gain
of 10 & ,.

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