GEO 2204 : Photogrammetry I

Magemeso Ibrahim
Email: [email protected]
 Central perspective projection

• Most of the cameras used in photogrammetry can be

sufficiently approximated by the central perspective
projection. The assumptions made in modelling the
image formation process by such a projection are that
light rays travel in a straight line to the lens and that
they pass through the lens undeviated. The image
making process can thus be simplistically described in
the following way:
• A bundle of light rays are reflected from the 3D object
or surface being photographed
• They travel in a straight line to the camera lens
 Central perspective projection

• They pass through the lens undeviated (i.e.

unrefracted or in a straight line) and are brought to a
focus at a point on the image plane
• The photographic film or electronic sensors (in the
case of digital photography) are located in this image
plane. In this way, 3D real world objects are projected
(or transformed) into 2D image objects.
• Collinearity condition: The object point, the
perspective centre (or optical centre of the lens) and
the image point will all lie on a straight line. In other
words they will be collinear
 Central perspective-
collinearity condition

Vertical photography views. 3D view (a), 3D view seen

sideways (b) and object points in diapositive (c)
 Central perspective
projection
It is not always possible to achieve the
central perspective projection in a manner
that has been explained due to a number
of reasons. These will be covered in the
later part of the course
 Fundamental image
properties
• Principal distance: The perpendicular
distance between the perspective centre and
the image plane (or camera constant). In
metric cameras this distance is fixed.
• Principal point: Point where a perpendicular
dropped from the perspective centre (O)
intersects with the image plane (PP)
 Fundamental image
properties
• Fiducial marks: (Also referred to as collimation marks).
Metric cameras, at the time of exposure produce fiducial
marks on the edge of the image. These marks are images of
artificially illuminated objects embedded in the body of the
camera. They are used to recover the principal point of the
image. The intersection of the lines joining opposite fiducial
marks should, theoretically, define the position of the
principal point, and the lines should be orthogonal at their
point of intersection. In reality, the fiducial marks are not
perfectly aligned, so there is a slight offset between the
principal point and the intersection of the fiducial lines and
the lines are not perfectly orthogonal.
Fundamentals of vertical photograph

Principle distance
Principle point

Fiducial marks

Principle point vs. intersection of

fiducials
 Fiducial co-ordinate
system
• The intersection of the fiducial marks is
the centre of the axes
• Co-ordinates of any point can be
obtained with reference to fiducial axes.
 Relationship between object
and image co-ordinates
• Any image co-
ordinates must
be related to its
equivalent on the
ground. This
relationship has
to be obtained
mathematically
Relationship between object
and image co-ordinates
 3D cartesian co-ordinate system
for the image co-ordinates

• Origin: O – the perspective centre

• x-axis: parallel to the xf axis
• y-axis: parallel to the yf axis
• z-axis: along the optical axis of the camera,
positive towards the image plane of the negative
• In order to determine a mathematical
relationship between image and object co-
ordinates, we have to make the co linearity
condition assumption
 Interior orientation
• Starting at coordinates measured in the fiducial
coordinate system, these need to be transformed to
coordinates in the image coordinate system. This
means that the interior orientation parameters need
to be known. The interior orientation of an image
refers to the perspective geometry of the camera
and is defined by:
 The calibrated principal distance of the camera C
 The position of the principal point in the image
plane (fiducial coordinate system) x0,y0
 The geometric distortion characteristics of the
lens system
 Interior orientation

• We first assume that there are no lens distortions.

The interior orientation parameters are therefore
defined by: xo, yo and c.
• To relate a point on the image (P) for which the
fiducial coordinates are known, to its position in the
image coordinate system, the following relationship
can be used:
 Exterior orientation
• Determines the position and orientation of a
camera during photography.
• requires six parameters:
 co-ordinates of the cameral position ( X, Y,
Z)
 3 rotations in the x, y and z directions, the
rotations are defined using the Omega-phi-
kappa (w,,) and azimuth-tilt-swing (a,t, s)

Sequential rotations in the x, y and z axes

 Sequence of rotations
• The exact sequence in which the rotations are done is
a matter of choice, but the most widely used
convention is to adopt:
• the x-axis and the  rotation as the primary rotation
axis and primary rotation angle respectively.
• the y-axis and the  rotation as the secondary rotation
axis and secondary rotation angle respectively.
• the z-axis and the  rotation angle as the tertiary
rotation axis and tertiary rotation angle respectively.
 Rotation matrices

These are orthogonal rotation matrices,

i.e: R-1 = RT
 Overall rotation matrix

 The overall rotation matrix is a product of the

above three rotation matrices. The order of
multiplication affects the resulting rotation matrix
 a general rotation matrix is of the form
Overall rotation matrix

r11  cos  cos 

r12  cos  sin   sin  sin  cos 
r13  sin  sin   cos  sin  cos 
r 21   cos  sin 
r 22  cos  cos   sin  sin  sin 
r 23  sin  cos   cos  sin  sin 
r 31  sin 
r 32   sin  cos 
r 33  cos  cos 
 Relating image and
object points
• Using image co-ordinates, Rotation
matrix, and object points.
• We can achieve this through collinearity
principle
 Co linearity equations
Objective:
Mathematically represent the relationship between
object and image co-ordinates
Assumption:
The co linearity principle states that Image point,
perspective centre and object point are collinear.
Equations expressing the co linearity condition are called
co linearity equations
Co linearity equations
 Collinearity

• For the line O'P' and O'P, we first assume

that the origins of the 2 coordinate systems
coincide and that the axes of the 2 systems
are parallel. Since O'P' and O'P are
collinear, they differ only by the scale factor
k:
 Collinearity

x  X 
 y   k Y 
   
 z  P  Z  P
 Co linearity

• We then make compensation for (x,y,z) for

interior orientation, (X,Y,Z) for non-coincidence
of the coordinate system and non parallel axis.

 x  xo  X  X o 
 y  y   kR Y  Y 
 o  o 

 c  P  Z  Z o  P
 Collinearity

• Since we know already the nature of the rotation

matrix, we substitute its value in the equation
and expand the equation. The following
equations result
 x  x0   k  r11  X  X 0   r12  Y  Y0   r13  Z  Z 0  
 y  y0   k  r21  X  X 0   r22  Y  Y0   r23  Z  Z 0  
  c   k  r31  X  X 0   r32  Y  Y0   r33  Z  Z 0  
 Collinearity

• These can be reduced to

 x  x0   c r11  X  X 0   r12  Y  Y0   r13  Z  Z 0  Converts object co-

r31  X  X 0   r32  Y  Y0   r33  Z  Z 0  ordinates to image co-
 y  y0   c r21  X  X 0   r22  Y  Y0   r23  Z  Z 0  odinates
r31  X  X 0   r32  Y  Y0   r33  Z  Z 0 

r11  x  x 0   r21  y  y 0   r31   c 

 X  X 0   Z  Z0 
Converts image co- r13  x  x 0   r23  y  y 0   r33   c 
ordinates to object co- r12  x  x 0   r22  y  y 0   r32   c 
ordinates  Y  Y0    Z  Z 0 
r13  x  x 0   r23  y  y 0   r33   c 
 Co linearity equations
• These equations are different forms of the co linearity
equations. They express the fundamental relationship
that the perspective centre, the image point and the
object point lie on a straight line and are fundamental
to many procedures in photogrammetry.
• Except for lens distortion and other deviations from
perspective projection, each frame photograph bundle
is defined by three IO parameters and six EO
parameters. These nine parameters are constant for
all rays in the bundle. Any individual ray can be
expressed by the co linearity equations.
 Co linearity equations
• Since the photograph is a 2D representation of a 3D
object, the scale is different between image points, i.e.
k takes on a different value for each ray in the bundle.
K is usually unknown and is hence eliminated. The
scale factor implies that for any image point in a
photograph, there are an infinite number of possible
related object points, i.e. one photograph is, in the
general case, insufficient to reconstruct a spatial
object. One needs either at least a second photograph
or additional information about the Z co-ordinate (e.g.
all object points lie in a horizontal plane with known
elevation).
 Scale of vertical
photograph
• Scale dictates the amount and level of detail we can see in a map or
photograph.
• The common concept of scale is the ratio of a distance measured on a
map to its true distance on the ground, e.g. 1: 25000 implies that 1mm
on the map represents 25 000mm, or 25m, on the ground. A map is an
orthographic projection of the ground surface, hence all points in the
map are in their true relative horizontal positions. The scale of a map
is uniform throughout.
• A photograph may appear to be like a map, especially if the ground is
flat and level and the photograph is taken vertically. However, since a
photograph is a perspective projection, areas on the terrain lying
closer to the camera at the instant of exposure will appear larger than
areas lying further from the camera. Terrain features are also
displaced relative to their heights, so-called terrain displacement.
Scale of vertical photograph

The figure (a) shows a section through a vertical

photograph with the lens positioned at O. The elevation of
the lens is known as the flying height (FH) (i.e. it is the
distance of the perspective centre from the target) while
the ground (flat) lies at elevation h above the datum. Point
O' is the principal point of the photograph. Distance c is the
principal distance.
 Scale of vertical
photography
Scale of image = (Length of any line on image)/Length of
same line on ground
i.e. S = ab/AB
But by similar triangles: ab/AB = c/(H-h).

Thus, the scale at elevation h is given by:

sh 
H  h 
c
 Scale of vertical
photography
c is usually given in mm, H and h in meters, hence a
conversion factor may be necessary.
Generally, scale is a function of c (principle distance),
flying height and Terrain elevation.
 Variable photo
scale/mean scale
• For a vertical photograph taken at variable
terrain, there is going to be an infinite number
of different scales. This is one of the principle
differences between a map and a photograph.
• It is therefore convenient to determine and
overall scale to use. This is what is called the
mean/average scale.
• Average scale is the scale at the average
elevation of the terrain
 Examples

• Given the highest elevations, average elevation,

lowest elevation to be 600, 450, 300 m
respectively. Calculate the maximum, minimum
and average scales for photography carried at
flying height of 2000m above mean sea level
using a camera of focal length 152.4mm
 Other methods of
computing scale
Scale = (photo distance)*(map scale)/map
distance

Example: The distance on the map between two

road junctions in a flat terrain is 40mm. The
corresponding distance on the vertical
photograph is 80mm. If the scale of the map is
1:25000. what is the scale of photography?
 Geometry of vertical
photograph-Additional notes
 Geometry of vertical
photograph
 Nadir Point (n): is the point at which the
plumbline passing through the perspective centre
intersect the negative plane.
 The Isocentre (1) is the point at which the bisector
of the angle of tilt intersects the negative. It is
denoted by (i) on the negative.
 Principal Point: - This is the point at which the
perpendicular line drawn from the perspective centre
intersect the negative or the orthogonal projection of
the perspective centre onto the negative.
 Principal Distance (c) is the distance between the
perspective centre and the negative plane.
 Geometry of vertical
photograph

Principal Axis: - is the line, which connect the principal
point and the perspective centre.

Principal Line: - is the line, which connect the principal
point and the Nadir point. This line exists on the negative.

Principal Plane: - This is the plane in which we have the
principal point, the Nadir point, the Isocentre and all the
points on the negative.

Flying Height: - This is the vertical distance between the
perspective centre of the camera and the terrain.

Horizon: - This is the apparent visible junction of the earth
and the Sky as seen by the visible eye from the fixed position.
 Geometry of vertical
photograph

Homologous Points: - These are points, which appear on
the ground. (Corresponding ray)
n is homologous to N and Vice
Versa
i is homologous to I
p is homologous to P

Datum: - is a level surface that can be used as a reference.

Perspective Centre: - is the point at which all rays
emanating from the object space (ground) to the image
plane pass through. OR It is the bordenline between the
object space and the image space .
Fundamental Image
properties
 Projection systems

• Orthogonal Projection
• Central Projection and
• Parallel projection
 Central projection
• All aerial photographs are based on central projection
while maps are based on orthogonal projection.
• Central projection is the projection in which the rays
emanating from the object pass through a central
point, call the perspective centre (o)
 Orthogonal projection
• Orthogonal projection is a projection in which the
projected rays intercept the other medium at a right angle.
 Parallel projection
• Parallel projection is the projection in which the
rays intercept the other medium at any angle.
 Difference between a
map and a photograph
• RELIEF DISPLACEMENT: -Is the linear difference in the
position of an image on the photograph caused by elevation,
compared with its true position on the datum.
• TILT DISPLACEMENT:- This is the linear difference in
position of an image point on a tilted compared with its
position on a vertical photograph.
• A terrain is said to be flat if the average changes in elevation
is less than 10% of the flying height. It is mountaneous when
it is more than 10% of the flying height.
•  SLOPE DISPLACEMENT: May be defined as any
inclination on the earth surface.
Effect of Tilt
Effect of Slope on an
Image
Effect of Relief
Co-ordinate measurement
perspective from central
Effect of Relief
Effect of Relief
Effect of Relief
Survey Mission and
Flight Planning
 Introduction

Survey missions are very expensive:

 specialised crewmen
Specially adopted aircraft
Air camera
Other equipments (computers, GPS e.t.c)
Survey missions begin when aircraft takes off and ends
when it has landed. This assumes that the study area
has been covered by a series of overlapping photos
 Project planning
Project planning for photogrammetry requires the following to
be undertaken:
• Feasibility study
• Needs and constraints analysis
• Development of a flight plan
• Planning of ground control
• Estimation of project cost
• Planning of processing steps
• These processes are interdependent and interrelated . They
can not be performed in isolation.
 Feasibilty study
The aim of the feasibility analysis is to determine the
suitability of photogrammetric mensuration (measurement),
documentation and/or photogrammetric interpretation to
the proposed project. Remember that to be able to measure
objects in a photographic image, one has to be able to
recognise and identify the object by interpreting the image
content. There are a number of instances in which the
measurement of objects from photographic images is of
secondary importance to their identification and
interpretation. In such instances it may be acceptable to
procure photography of lower accuracy, so long as the
interpretation aspect is not compromised in any way.
 Feasibilty study
• The accuracy required (both from an interpretation and
measurement point of view) and an assessment of whether or not
this will be fulfilled given the circumstances of a particular project.
• The complexity of the object or terrain to be photographed
• The equipment available
• The personnel and skills available to conduct the photographic
mission and to process the data
• The time frame in which it has to be completed
• The finances available.
 Feasibilty study
• Please note:
• Photogrammetric process is expensive
• There is need to assess whether data collection by
photogrammetry is the most economical approach.
 When to use
photogrammetry
• Objects to be measured are clearly recognizable in the
photographs.
• Photogrammetry becomes more favourable as the difficulty of
terrestrial measurement increases. For example, in a situation
where topographic mapping of a very large, rugged and remote
area is to be performed it will probably prove more economical to
use photogrammetry than ground-based survey measurements.
• The larger and more regular the area, the more economical is
photogrammetry. Small and irregular areas are less suitable. The
irregularity of the area or object has particular pertinence to close-
range applications where it is often necessary to photograph
irregular objects. The more irregular the object is, the more
photographs will be needed to ensure sufficient photographic and
stereo coverage.
 When to use
photogrammetry
• As the number of points to determine increases, photogrammetry
becomes more favourable. It is much easier to gather large amounts
of information and measurements quickly from photographs, than it
is from more traditional surveying techniques.
• Photogrammetry is a multi-use method. Numerous and diverse
datasets can be produced from the photography including a variety
of 2D and 3D point, line and polygon measurements (DTMs, contour
lines, interpreted data such as rivers, roads, houses, building
outlines, architectural details (for close range), orthophotos,
photomosaics, etc. This make photogrammetry an attractive option
when a lot of different products are required, especially when there
are interpretation aspects in addition to the measurement aspects.
One is then able to derive a number of different datasets from the
original raw data and gain maximum value from the photos.
 Needs analysis
A needs analysis is linked to feasibility study and aims at
determining factors such as:
• The amount of detail that needs to be discernable from
the image.
• The degree of contrast that needs to be distinguishable
between different objects in the image.
• The type of film to be used (pan-chromatic, colour, IR)
• The accuracy of measurement.
• The products that are to be produced from the
interpretation and measurement process
 Flight planning
Flight planning is a term that has it’s origins in
aerial photogrammetry and deals with
technical specifications such as required photo
scale, flying height, camera specs, base length,
etc.
 Flight plan
docummentation
• project description
• image scale number (to achieve minimum resolution,
accuracy)
• camera constant
• flying height (minimum and maximum possible)
• base distance
• forward and side-lap
• photograph exposure time
 Flight plan
docummentation
• time between exposures
• flight plan
• ground area covered by the block
• estimated number of photographs include, number of
strips and number of photos per strip
• time of day and season of flight
• choice of aircraft and
• crew constellation
 Flight plan
• Usually drawn on a map or in CAD
• Flight lines aligned with ground co-ordinate axis
Flight plan
 Flight plan
Flights are usually designed with:
• flying direction along one of the ground co-ordinate system axes (X or
Y)
• A = distance between flight lines
• B = base
• c = principal distance
• s = image side
• h = flying height above ground
• Z = ground height (above datum)
• Zo = absolute flying height
• v = flying speed over the ground
• L = length of the strip of block
• Q = side length of block
 Selection of flying height
Photo – scale number: mb=h/c
Image side in the ground S=s* mb
Base in the photograph b=B/ mb
Flying height above ground h=c* mb
Absolute flying height Z0=h+Z
Flight planning
parameters
Flight planning
parameters
 Selection of flying height
Flying height is one of the major parameters in flight
design and depends on:
 desired the scale
 The relief and the tilt
 Photogrammetric equipment used for acquisition and
processing of the data.
• C-factor = Flying height/contour interval (usually,
the contour interval is selected, followed by the
corresponding C-factor. These two values help to
compute the flying height).
 Factors affecting flight
planning
Project purpose
Camera
 Image/photo scale
Ground coverage
 image motion
 strip interval
 season and time of the day.
 Factors affecting flight
planning
Project purpose
• Only with the purpose known can the optimum equipment
and procedures be selected.
• Metric Vs pictorial qualities
• Metric photos are required for quantitative
photogrammetric measurement
• Photos with high pictorial qualities are good for qualitative
analysis e.g mosaic formation and interpretation.
• Metric photos are obatined with calibrated cameras with a
good B/H ratio that allows larger parallactic angles.
Project Planning
Project purpose: Topographic map compilation
• Most common photogrammetric application
• Employs stereoscopic plotting instrument
• WA (c = 152mm) lenses favoured to obtain BH ratio that
enhances elevation measurement accuracy
• If flat, SWA (c = 88mm) can be used
• If forest area, NA (c = 210mm) used to allow operator to
measure between the trees
• Standard are 60% forward overlap and 15-30% sidelap,
providing for good stereo coverage and sufficient leeway or
prevent gaps
• Flight line orientation dictated by economy rather than
geometric consideration
Photogrammetry - Dr. George Sithole 7
6
Project Planning
Project purpose: Photomosaics
• Use the longest length lens available and fly as
high as feasible to give desired photo scale
• Reasons: (1) limit relief displacement; (2) limit
photographic tilt effects; (3) limit variations in
scale between photographs
• As relief and tilt displacement are proportional
to the distance from the centre of the photo, the
problem of mismatching photos can be reduced
by increasing the overlap and sidelap. If the
ground is flat 60% and 15-30% are standard
Photogrammetry - Dr. George Sithole 7
7
Project Planning
Project purpose: Orthoimagery
• Generally same photographic parameters as
for map compilation
• Flight line orientation is often normal to the
general trend of the topography (for analogue
orthophoto production)
• If the orthoimages will form a mosaic, they
should be taken with constant sun angle and
at the same time of the year (to minimise
radiometric (tone, texture) differences)
Photogrammetry - Dr. George Sithole 7
8
Project Planning
Project purpose: Triangulation
• Flight plan governed by topographic mapping
consideration (this is often the final objective)
• To enhance accuracy, 60% in both directions
often used. Then internal tie points will
appear on 9 photographs giving 9 collinearity
equations for the point.

Photogrammetry - Dr. George Sithole 7

9
Project Planning
Project purpose: Cadastral surveys
• As for triangulation. Higher accuracy
requirements demand 60% overlap in both
direction for establishing fill-in ground control
points

8
0
Project Planning

Choice of scale
• Selection of a reliable photograph scale is of
major importance, because the quality of the
final digital mapping product hinges primarily
upon it. Scale selection can be done on the basis of:
Required planimetric details
 Required Vertical and horizontal accuracy
 Flying height
 Project economy optimization
 Factors affecting scale
choice
Generally depends of purpose and the
restrictions of the flying height.
 superwide angle (8.5/23)
Wide angle (15/23)
Normal angle ( 30/23)
 Factors affecting flight
planning
Ground coverage:
Ground coverage can be estimated from the endlap and side lap
Endlap
Minimum 60%
For aerotriangulation or cadastral purposes, 80% - 90%
 Side lap
minimum 20%
commonly (25-30)%
In order to save height control points and to increase the accuracy
and reliability of a block, sidelaps of up to 60% may be employed.
 Factors affecting flight
planning
Ground coverage:
 Ground coverage can be estimated from the endlap and side
lap
 Endlap
Minimum 60%
For aerotriangulation or cadastral purposes, 80% - 90%
 Side lap
minimum 20%
commonly (25-30)%
 In order to save height control points and to increase the accuracy and
reliability of a block, side-laps of up to 60% may be employed.
 Factors affecting flight
planning
Strip interval:
 Depends on the scale
 Sidelap

Generally, aim for minimum number of

strips which should be aligned in north-
south or east-west direction.
 Factors affecting flight
planning
Image motion:
 Image motion negatively influences
image resolution by blurring an object’s
image formation in the film.
If images movement is not corrected for,
images of ground objects will appear in
form of lines on the photograph and lie
in the direction of flight
 Factors affecting flight
planning
Weather conditions:
 ideal day should have no clouds. Less than 10% cloud
cover is good enough
Over 10% cloud cover is still possible if the clouds are
above the planned flight height BUT... Shadows casts
might affect the quality of the photos.
 industralised areas with dust, smoke e.t.c should be
photographed after the raining. This helps to clear the
atmosphere.
Windy days should be avoided since they course image
motion as well as difficulty in keeping the camera vertical.
 Factors affecting flight
planning
Season of the year:
 not during snow period as it covers the
objects of interest
 Spring for winter countries is the best
since the trees will have full leaves.
 sun‘s angle shoud be considered. Low
sun‘s angle creates longer shadows
which obscure details.
 Ideal conditions for
photography
 For topographical applications, best flying times is before
deciduous trees sprout.
 Aim for seasons when haze is at a minimum
 Best flying time is towards midday to avoid long shadows
 ± 5° in , ± 3° in , and ± 15° in .
 A variation of ±2% in the flying height is acceptable
 The track of the aircraft can, with visual navigation and
good navigation information, be held within ± 1cm in the
photograph
 Ground control points
• The objective of ground control is to determine the ground position
of points that can be located in aerial photographs. The ground
position of a point can be defined by its horizontal position with
respect to a horizontal datum or by its vertical position with respect
to a vertical datum, or both. In photogrammetry – especially aerial
photogrammetry, it is not uncommon to use different points to
provide horizontal and vertical control for a project.
• Ground control is necessary in order to establish the position and
orientation of each photograph in space relative to the object space
coordinate system. Ground control also enables the
photogrammetrist to establish the elements of exterior orientation
and provide a basis for extending control photogrammetrically.
 Classification of ground
control
Basic control
 Photo control.
 The basic control is the basic network of monuments (i.e. trig stations,
town survey marks, height benchmarks, etc.) that form part of the
geodetic control network. In a close range application it is usually
necessary to establish a local control network. These control points
will not necessarily be used as control points used to establish the
absolute orientation of the photographs, but they are necessary to
establish the positions of the points used in photo control.
• The photo control points are points whose images can be identified in
the photos, and whose positions are determined from the basic
control. Depending on the scale of the photography, it may be feasible
to incorporate some of the existing basic control as photo control.
 Photo-control
• Pre-marked
• Post-marked (natural features). Not suitable for high
accuracy work
• Often the surveying of photo control is only done after
the photography has been acquired and developed.
• Size of marks determined by photo scale.
• Accuracy of photo-control determines accuracy of
exterior orientation
• The control phase of photogrammetry, in general, may
account for as much as 50% of the total cost of the
project
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 Establishment of photo
control
• Hence, each control points must definitely contribute to the operation:
• It must lie in the correct position on the photograph in order to
accomplish its purpose
• It must be positively identifiable in the photo and on the ground
• The image of the point must be sharp and well-defined to permit
accurate measurement and must contrast well with the background
• Be symmetrical if possible
• Not be in shadow
• It should, if possible, be easily accessible on the ground
• The point must be properly marked and documented in the field.
• Each stereo model should contain 3 horizontal and 4 vertical control
points.
 Establishment of photo
control
• Redundant control points allow for the
detection and isolation of erroneous control
points
• The more ground control, and the higher the
accuracy of the survey (the more expensive
the project becomes).
• Control must be located so that mapping does
not occur beyond the limits of the control.