Data Gathering

Data Gathering techniques

• Interviewe
• Joint Application Design (JAD)
• Questionnaires
• Investigation
• Observastion
Interviewing
• Interviewing is an important method
for collecting data on information
system requirements.
• Interviews reveal information about:
• Interviewee opinions.
• Interviewee feelings.
• About the current state of the system.
• Organizational and personal goals.
• Informal procedures.
Planning the Interview
Five steps in planning the interview
are:
• Reading background material.
• Establishing interview objectives.
• Deciding whom to interview.
• Preparing the interviewee.
• Deciding on question types and
structure.
Question Types

There are two basic types of interview

questions:
• Open-ended.
• Closed.
Open-Ended Questions
• Open-ended interview questions allow
interviewees to respond how they wish,
and to what length they wish.
• Open-ended questions are appropriate
when the analyst is interested in breadth
and depth of reply.
Advantages of Open-Ended
Questions
Eight benefits of open-ended questions are:
• Puts the interviewee at ease.
• Allows the interviewer to pick up on the
interviewee's vocabulary.
• Reflect education, values, attitudes, and beliefs.
• Provides richness of detail.
• Reveals avenues of further questioning that may
have gone untapped.
Advantages of Open-Ended
Questions
Eight Benefits of open-ended questions
are: (continued)
• Provides more interest for the interviewee.
• Allows more spontaneity.
• Makes phrasing easier for the interviewer.
• Useful if the interviewer is unprepared.
Disadvantages of Open-Ended
Questions
The five drawbacks include:
• May result in too much irrelevant detail.
• Possibly losing control of the interview.
• May take too much time for the amount of
useful information gained.
• Potentially seeming that the interviewer is
unprepared.
• Possibly giving the impression that the
interviewer is on a "fishing expedition”
Closed Interview Questions
• Closed interview questions limit the
number of possible responses.
• Closed interview questions are
appropriate for generating precise,
reliable data that is easy to analyze.
• The methodology is efficient, and it
requires little skill for interviewers to
administer.
Benefits of Closed Interview
Questions
Six benefits are:
• Saving interview time.
• Easily comparing interviews.
• Getting to the point.
• Keeping control of the interview.
• Covering a large area quickly.
• Getting to relevant data.
Disadvantages of Closed
Interview Questions

Four drawbacks of closed interview

questions include:
• Boring for the interviewee.
• Failure to obtain rich detailing.
• Missing main ideas.
• Failing to build rapport between
interviewer and interviewee.
Attributes of Open-ended and
Closed Questions
Bipolar Questions and Probes

• Bipolar questions are those that may be

answered with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ or ‘agree’
or ‘disagree’.
• Bipolar questions should be used
sparingly.
Probing Questions

• Probing questions elicit more detail

about previous questions.
• The purpose of probing questions is:
• To get more meaning.
• To clarify.
• To draw out and expand on the
interviewee's point.
Question Sequencing
The three basic ways of structuring
interviews are :
• Pyramid, starting with closed questions and
working toward open-ended questions.
• Funnel, starting with open-ended questions
and working toward closed questions.
• Diamond, starting with closed, moving
toward open-ended, and ending with
closed questions.
Pyramid Structure
• Begins with very detailed, often closed
questions
• Expands by allowing open-ended
questions and more generalized
responses
• Is useful if interviewees need to be
warmed up to the topic or seem
reluctant to address the topic
Funnel Structure

• Begins with generalized, open-ended

questions
• Concludes by narrowing the possible
responses using closed questions
• Provides an easy, nonthreatening way
to begin an interview
• Is useful when the interviewee feels
emotionally about the topic
Diamond Structure

• A diamond-shaped structure begins in a

very specific way
• Then more general issues are examined
• Concludes with specific questions
• Combines the strength of both the
pyramid and funnel structures
• Takes longer than the other structures
Closing the Interview

• Always ask “Is there anything else that

you would like to add?”
• Summarize and provide feedback on
your impressions.
• Ask whom you should talk with next.
• Set up any future appointments.
• Thank them for their time and shake
hands.
Interview Report

• Write as soon as possible after the

interview.
• Provide an initial summary, then more
detail.
• Review the report with the respondent.
Joint Application Design (JAD)

• Joint Application Design (JAD) can

replace a series of interviews with the
user community.
• JAD is a technique that allows the
analyst to accomplish requirements
analysis and design the user interface
with the users in a group setting.
When to Use JAD
JAD may be used when:
• Users are restless and want something
new.
• The organizational culture supports joint
problem-solving behaviors.
• Analysts forecast an increase in the
number of ideas using JAD.
• Personnel may be absent from their jobs
for the length of time required.
JAD Personnel

JAD involves:
• Analysts
• Users
• Executives
• Observers
• Scribe
• Session leader
Benefits of JAD

The potential benefits of using JAD are:

• Time is saved, compared with traditional
interviewing.
• Rapid development of systems.
• Improved user ownership of the system.
• Creative idea production is improved.
Drawbacks of Using JAD
Potential drawbacks of using JAD are:
• JAD requires a large block of time to be
available for all session participants.
• If preparation is incomplete, the session
may not go very well.
• If the follow-up report is incomplete, the
session may not be successful.
• The organizational skills and culture may
not be conducive to a JAD session.
Questionnaires

Questionnaires are useful in gathering

information from key organization
members about:
• Attitudes.
• Beliefs.
• Behaviors.
• Characteristics.
When to Use Questionnaires

Questionnaires are valuable if:

• Organization members are widely
dispersed.
• Many members are involved with the
project.
• Exploratory work is needed.
• Problem solving prior to interviews is
necessary.
Question Types

Questions are designed as either:

• Open-ended
• Try to anticipate the response you will get.
• Well suited for getting opinions.
• Closed
• Use when all the options may be listed.
• When the options are mutually exclusive.
Open-Ended and Closed
Questions
Questionnaire Language

Questionnaire language should be:

• Simple.
• Specific.
• Free of bias.
• Not patronizing.
• Technically accurate.
• Addressed to those who are knowledgeable.
• Appropriate for the reading level of the
respondent.
Measurement Scales

• The two different forms of

measurement scales are :
• Nominal.
• Interval.
Nominal Scales

• Nominal scales are used to classify

things into categories.
• It is the weakest form of measurement.
• Data may be totaled.
What type of software do you use the most?
1 = Word Processor
2 = Spreadsheet
3 = Database
4 = An Email Program
Interval Scales

• An interval scale is used when the

intervals are equal.
• There is no absolute zero.
• Examples of interval scales include the
Fahrenheit or centigrade scale.
How useful is the support given by the Technical Support Group?
NOT USEFUL EXTREMELY
AT ALL USEFUL
1 2 3 4 5
Validity and Reliability
Questionnaires must be valid and
reliable.
• Reliability of scales refers to consistency in
response--getting the same results if the
same questionnaire was administered
again under the same conditions.
• Validity is the degree to which the question
measures what the analyst intends to
measure.
Problems with Scales

There are three problems associated

with poorly constructed scales:
• Leniency.
• Central tendency.
• Halo effect.
 Leniency

• Caused by easy raters.

• Solution is to move the “average”
category to the left or right of center.
Central Tendency

Central tendency occurs when

respondents rate everything as
average.
• Improve by making the differences
smaller at the two ends.
• Adjust the strength of the descriptors.
• Create a scale with more points.
Halo Effect

• When the impression formed in one

question carries into the next question
• Solution is to place one trait and several
items on each page.
Designing the Questionnaire

Good response rates can be achieved

with consistent control of questionnaire.
• Allow ample white space.
• Allow ample space to write or type in
responses.
• Make it easy for respondents to clearly
mark their answers.
• Be consistent in style.
Order of Questions

• Place most important questions first.

• Cluster items of similar content
together.
• Introduce less controversial questions
first.
Web Form Questionnaires
Controls (fields) used on Web forms:
• Single line text box.
• Scrolling text box, used for one or more
paragraphs of text.
• Check box for yes-no or true-false answers.
• Radio button for mutually exclusive yes-no or
true-false answers.
• Drop-down menu for selection from a list.
• Submit or Clear buttons.
Methods of Administering the
Questionnaire
Methods of administering the
questionnaire include:
• Convening all concerned respondents
together at one time.
• Personally administering the questionnaire.
• Allowing respondents to self-administer the
questionnaire.
• Mailing questionnaires.
• Administering over the Web or via email.
Electronically Submitting
Questionnaires

Administering a questionnaire
electronically has the following benefits:
• Reduced costs.
• Collecting and storing the results
electronically.
Investigation Hard Data
Hard data can be obtained by:
• Analyzing quantitative documents such as
records used for decision making.
• Performance reports.
• Records.
• Data capture forms.
• Ecommerce and other transactions.
Qualitative Documents

Examine qualitative documents for the

following:
• Key or guiding metaphors.
• Insiders vs. outsiders mentality.
• What is considered good vs. evil.
• Graphics, logos, and icons in common
areas or Web pages.
• A sense of humor.
Analyzing Qualitative
Documents

Qualitative documents include:

• Memos.
• Signs on bulletin boards.
• Corporate Web sites.
• Manuals.
• Policy handbooks.
Observation

• Observation provides insight on what

organizational members actually do.
• See firsthand the relationships that exist
between decision makers and other
organizational members.
Analyst’s Playscript

• Involves observing the decision-makers

behavior and recording their actions
using a series of action verbs
• Examples:
• Talking.
• Sampling.
• Corresponding.
• Deciding.
STROBE

STRuctured OBservation of the

Environment-- a technique for
observing the decision maker's
environment
STROBE Elements
Analyzes seven environmental elements:
• Office location.
• Desk placement.
• Stationary equipment.
• Props.
• External information sources.
• Office lighting and color.
• Clothing worn by decision makers.
 Office Location

• Accessible offices
• Main corridors, open door
• Major traffic flow area
• Increase interaction frequency and
informal messages
• Inaccessible offices
• May view the organization differently
• Drift apart from others in objectives
 Desk Placement

• Visitors in a tight space, back to wall,

large expanse behind desk
• Indicates maximum power position
• Desk facing the wall, chair at side
• Encourages participation
• Equal exchanges
Stationary Office Equipment
File cabinets and bookshelves:
• If not present, person stores few
items of information personally.
• If an abundance, person stores
and values information.
• Calculators
• Personal computers
• Pens, pencils, and rulers
• If present, person processes data
personally
External Information Sources

• Trade journals or newspapers indicate

the person values outside information.
• Company reports, memos, policy
handbooks indicate the person values
internal information.
Office Lighting and Color
• Warm, incandescent lighting indicates:
• A tendency toward more personal
communication.
• More informal communication.
• Brightly lit, bright colors indicate:
• More formal communications (memos,
reports).
Clothing
• Male
• Formal two piece suit - maximum authority
• Casual dressing (sport jacket/slacks) -
more participative decision making
• Female
• Skirted suit - maximum authority
Anecdotal List with Symbols
• The five symbols used to evaluate how
observation of the elements of STROBE
compared with interview results are:
• A checkmark, the narrative is confirmed.
• An “X” means the narrative is reversed.
• An oval or eye-shaped symbol serves as a cue to
look further.
• A square means observation modifies the
narrative.
• A circle means narrative is supplemented by
observation.