Innovation and Cryptoventures

Ethereum
Campbell R. Harvey*
Duke University and NBER
Ashwin Ramachandran
Duke University
Brent Xu
ConsenSys
February 12, 2018
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Campbell R. Harvey 2018 2
 Overview

• Ethereum Basics
• Under the hood
• App deployment and connections
• Appendix

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 3

 Overview

• Highly recommended intro

• [Link]
how-does-ethereum-work-anyway-
22d1df506369
• I draw some graphics from the above
article in the presentation

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 4

History of Ethereum
• Russian-Canadian programmer
• Co-founded Ethereum when he
was 19 years old

5
History of Ethereum - Timeline

6
Important Concepts
• Cryptography (similar to Bitcoin)
• Blockchain
o Accounts (Two types) and Wallets
o Transactions
• Smart Contracts
o Solidity
 Language Used for Smart Contract
Development

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 7

Cryptography

• Hash functions
• Symmetric Cryptography
• Asymmetric Cryptography
• Signatures

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 8

 Hash Functions
• BTC uses SHA-256
• Ethereum uses Keccak-256
o Similar to SHA-3 (variant)
o Won contest for security in 2007
o Used for all hashing in Ethereum
o Derived differently than standard block-cipher based hashes
or previous SHA functions

9
 Digital Signatures (Digital Proof)
• Same use-case/cryptographic method (ECDSA) as BTC
• Signer uses private key to generate a signed message
• Signed message can be verified using the signer’s public
key
• Hashes are signed in Ethereum, not the data itself

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Blockchain
Fully Distributed Database like BTC
Advantages:
• Highly Secure
• Transparent
• Immutable

Disadvantages:
• Scaling
• Performance
Campbell R. Harvey 2018 11
Ethereum Blockchain
Blocks consist of 3 elements
• Transaction List
 List of all transactions included in a block
• Block Header
 Group of 15 elements
• Ommer List
 List of all Uncle blocks included
(described later)

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 12

Ethereum Blockchain
Uncles/Ommers
• Sometimes valid block solutions don’t make main chain
• Any broadcast block (up to 6 previous blocks back) with
valid PoW and difficulty can be included as an uncle
• Maximum of two can be included per block
• Uncle block transactions are not included – just header
• Aimed to decrease centralization and reward work

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 13

Ethereum Blockchain
Uncles/Ommers Rewards:
• Uncle headers can be included in main block for 1/32 of the
main block miner’s reward given to said miner
• Miners of uncle blocks receive percent of main reward
according to:
• (Un + (8 - Bn)) * 5 / 8, where Un and Bn are uncle and block
numbers respectively.
• Example (1333 + 8 - 1335) * ⅝ = 3.75 ETH
Campbell R. Harvey 2018 14
Ethereum Blockchain

• All blocks visible like BTC

• However, blocks have a
different structure than
BTC

[Link]
Campbell R. Harvey 2018 15
Ethereum Blockchain
Blocks faster than BTC and reward is different
• Every 12 seconds
• 5 ETH main reward
• Miners can make a bit more by including uncle blocks
(1/32 of an ETH each) up to maximum of two

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 16

Ethereum Blockchain
Blocks faster than BTC and reward is different
• Uses EthHash mining algorithm (different than Bitcoin)
 Helps mitigate ASIC and GPU advantages
 Involves smart contract execution
• Difficulty is adjusted every block (not every two weeks)
– this is an important identifier for the Uncle blocks

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 17

Ethereum Blockchain
Key differences
• Blocks keep track of balances – not “unspent
transaction outputs” like BTC
• Merkle-Patricia tries used (they have three branches
compared to the Merkle tree’s two)
• Will transition from Proof of Work to Proof of Stake
with Casper protocol
• See appendix for more details
Campbell R. Harvey 2018 18
Ethereum Nodes
• Validate all transactions and new blocks
• Operate in a P2P fashion
• Each contains a copy of the entire Blockchain
• Light clients - store only block headers
 Provide easy verification through tree data structure
 Don’t execute transactions, used primarily for balance validation
• Implemented in a variety of languages (Go, Rust, etc.)

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 19

Accounts and Wallets
Accounts:
• Two Kinds:
 External Owned Accounts - (EOA, most common account)
 Contract Accounts
• Consist of a public/private keypair
• Allow for interaction with the blockchain
Wallets:
• A set of one or more external accounts
• Used to store/transfer ether
Campbell R. Harvey 2018 20
Accounts and Wallets
External Account (EOA, Valid Ethereum Address)
• Has an associated nonce (amount of transactions
sent from the account) and a balance
• codeHash - Hash of associated account code, i.e. a
computer program for a smart contract (hash of an
empty string for external accounts, EOAs)
• Storage Root is root hash of Merkle-Patricia trie of
associated account data

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 21

Accounts and Wallets
Contract Account
• Ethereum accounts can store and execute code
 Has an associated nonce and balance
 codeHash - hash of associated account code storageRoot
contains Merkle tree of associated storage data

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 22

Example Account
Private Key:
0x2dcef1bfb03d6a950f91c573616cdd778d9581690db1cc43141f7cca06fd08ee

• Ethereum Private keys are 66 character strings (with 0x appended).

Case is irrelevant. Same derivation through ECDSA as BTC.
Address:
0xA6fA5e50da698F6E4128994a4c1ED345E98Df50

• Ethereum Private keys map to addresses directly. Simply the last 40

characters of the Keccak-256 hash of the public key. Address is 42
characters total (append 0x to front). 23
Transactions
• A request to modify the state of the blockchain
 Can run code (contracts) which change global state
o Contrasts only balance updates in BTC
• Signed by originating account
• Types:
 Send value from one account to another account
 Create smart contract
 Execute smart contract code

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 24

Ether Denominations
• Wei - lowest denomination
 Named after Wei Dai - author of b-money paper (1998), many
core concepts used in BTC implementation
 1/1,000,000,000,000,000,000 (quintillion)
• Szabo - next denomination
• Named after Nick Szabo
- author of Bit-Gold
• Finney – 2nd highest denomination
• Named after Hal Finney
- received first Tx from Nakamoto
Campbell R. Harvey 2018 25
[Link]
Smart Contracts
• Executable code
• Turing Complete
• Function like an external account
 Hold funds
 Can interact with other accounts and smart contracts
 Contain code
• Can be called through transactions

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 26

Code Execution
• Every node contains a virtual machine (similar to Java)
 Called the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM)
 Compiles code from high-level language to bytecode
 Executes smart contract code and broadcasts state
• Every full-node on the blockchain processes
every transaction and stores the entire state

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 27

Gas
• Halting problem (infinite loop) – reason for Gas
• Problem: Cannot tell whether or not a program will run
infinitely from compiled code
• Solution: charge fee per computational step to limit infinite
loops and stop flawed code from executing
• Every transaction needs to specify an estimate of the
amount of gas it will spend
• Essentially a measure of how much one is willing to
spend on a transaction, even if buggy
Campbell R. Harvey 2018 28
Gas Cost
• Gas Price: current market price of a unit of Gas (in Wei)
 Check gas price here: [Link]
 Is always set before a transaction by user
• Gas Limit: maximum amount of Gas user is willing to
spend
• Helps to regulate load on network
• Gas Cost (used when sending transactions) is calculated
by gasLimit*gasPrice.
 All blocks have a Gas Limit (maximum Gas each block can use)
Campbell R. Harvey 2018 29
PoW vs. PoS
Ethereum in the process of moving to Proof of Stake
• This approach does not require large expenditures on computing
and energy
• Miners are now “validators” and post a deposit in an escrow
account
• The more escrow you post, the higher the probability you will be
chosen to nominate the next block
• If you nominate a block with invalid transactions, you lose your
escrow

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 30

PoW vs. PoS
Ethereum in the process of moving to Proof of Stake
• One issue with this approach is that those that have the most
ethereum will be able to get even more
• This leads to centralization eventually
• On the other hand, it reduces the chance of a 51% attack and
allows for near instant transaction approvals
• The protocol is called Casper and this will be a hard fork

[Link]
Campbell R. Harvey 2018 31
Other approaches to conensus
There are many other types of consensus
• (PoW) Proof of Work (Bitcoin, Ethereum, …)
• (PoS) Proof of Stake (Ethereum in future)
• (PoI) Proof of Importance (used in NEM)
• (PBFT) Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (Hyperledger Fabric)
• (FBFT) Federated Byzantine Fault Tolerance (Ripple, Stellar)
• (DPoS) Delegated Proof of Stake
• (PoET) Proof of Elapsed Time (Hyperledger Sawtooth)

[Link]
Campbell R. Harvey 2018 32
Appendix materials

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 33

A. Ethereum Blockchain Header
• Hash of included ommer’s
stored in block header
• State root is the hash of a
merkle trie that holds all
account information
• Similar storage structure
for transactions and
receipts
Campbell R. Harvey 2018 34
A. Ethereum Blockchain State
StateRoot, TransactionRoot, and ReciptsRoot
• Stored in data structure known as a
Merkle-Patricia trie
• Similar to the Merkle trie used in BTC,
but with three leaves per node
• Trie is cryptographically secure as
any alteration of a leaf or intermediary
node results in a different root hash
Campbell R. Harvey 2018 35
A. Ethereum Blockchain State
StateRoot
• Each node in the stateRoot trie
represents an Ethereum address
• Each address has 4 components
• Nonce - list of number of Tx’s from
address
• CodeHash - hash of associated code
• StorageRoot - Merkle-Patricia tree
root of account storage contents
• Balance - balance of account
Campbell R. Harvey 2018 36
A. Ethereum Blockchain
Ethereum “difficulty bomb”
• Spike (increase) in mining difficulty
• Introduced to attempt to reduce number of miners
 Aimed to pre-date shift of algorithm from PoW to Proof-of-
Stake (PoS)

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 37

B. Smart Contract Programming
• Solidity (javascript based), most popular
 Not yet as functional as other, more mature, programming
languages
• Serpent (python based)
• LLL (lisp based)

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 38

B. Smart Contract Programming
Solidity
Solidity is a language similar to JavaScript which allows you to develop contracts and compile to
EVM bytecode. It is currently the flagship language of Ethereum and the most popular.
• Solidity Documentation - Solidity is the flagship Ethereum high level language that is used to
write contracts.
• Solidity online realtime compiler

Serpent
Serpent is a language similar to Python which can be used to develop contracts and compile to
EVM bytecode. It is intended to be maximally clean and simple, combining many of the
efficiency benefits of a low-level language with ease-of-use in programming style, and at the
same time adding special domain-specific features for contract programming. Serpent is
compiled using LLL.
• Serpent on the ethereum wiki 39
Campbell R. Harvey 2018
• Serpent EVM compiler
B. Smart Contract Programming

Atom Ethereum interface - Plugin for the Atom editor that features
syntax highlighting, compilation and a runtime environment (requires
backend node).
Atom Solidity Linter - Plugin for the Atom editor that provides Solidity
linting.

Vim Solidity - Plugin for the Vim editor providing syntax highlighting.
Vim Syntastic - Plugin for the Vim editor providing compile checking.

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 40

B. Smart Contract Programming: Solidity
contract Example {

uint value;

function setValue(uint pValue) {

value = pValue;
}

function getValue() returns (uint) {

return value;
}

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 41

B. Smart Contract Programming: Solidity
var logIncrement =
[Link]({sender: userAddress,
uint value});

[Link](function(err, result) {
// do something with result
})

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 42

C. Development Workflow
Testing Cycle

Create Fund Develop Compile Sign & Interact &

Account Account Deploy Test

● Onboard Additional Users

● Create New Accounts
● Develop New Applications

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Campbell R. Harvey 2018

C. Development Workflow: Create Account
Create Fund Develop Compile Sign & Interact &
Account Account Deploy Test

• Programmatically: Go, Python, C++, JavaScript, Haskell

• Tools
 [Link]
 MetaMask
 TestRPC
 Many other websites
Campbell R. Harvey 2018 44
C. Development Workflow: Fund Account
Create Fund Develop Compile Sign & Interact &
Account Account Deploy Test

• From friends
• Faucet
• Exchanges (for public blockchain)

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 45

C. Development Workflow: Develop
Create Fund Develop Compile Sign & Interact &
Account Account Deploy Test

• Ethereum Application Components:

 Base application: can be developed in any language
 Smart contract: developed in Solidity or one of the other
contract compatible languages
 Connector library: facilitates communication between base
application and smart contracts (Metamask)

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 46

C. Development Workflow: Sign and Deploy
Create Fund Develop Compile Sign & Interact &
Account Account Deploy Test

Transaction
Sign
Signed tx
Deploy Live Smart
Contract

Bytecodes Connector*

*Library that facilitates communication and connection with Blockchain; Connects your code to a running node.
Campbell R. Harvey 2018 47
C. Development Workflow: TestRPC
Create Fund Develop Compile Sign & Interact
Account Account Deploy &
Test

TestRPC/TestChain
• Local development or Test Blockchain
• [Link]

Campbell R. Harvey 2018 48

C. Development Workflow: TestRPC
• EthereumJS TestRPC: [Link] is
suited for development and testing
• It's a complete blockchain-in-memory that runs only on your
development machine
• It processes transactions instantly instead of waiting for the
default block time – so you can test that your code works quickly
– and it tells you immediately when your smart contracts run into
errors
• It also makes a great client for automated testing
• Truffle knows how to use its special features to speed up test
runtime by almost 90%. 49
Campbell R. Harvey 2018