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Types of Proofs Explained

The document defines key terms used in mathematical proofs such as theorems, axioms, lemmas, and conjectures. It explains different types of proofs including direct proofs, indirect proofs by contradiction, and proofs by contraposition. Direct proofs assume a statement is true and use it to show a conclusion is also true. Indirect proofs assume the opposite of what is being proven to reach a contradiction. Proofs by contradiction assume a statement and its negation to derive a logical inconsistency, proving the original statement. Proofs by contraposition prove the contrapositive statement, which is logically equivalent to the original.

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Manal Rizwan
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80 views28 pages

Types of Proofs Explained

The document defines key terms used in mathematical proofs such as theorems, axioms, lemmas, and conjectures. It explains different types of proofs including direct proofs, indirect proofs by contradiction, and proofs by contraposition. Direct proofs assume a statement is true and use it to show a conclusion is also true. Indirect proofs assume the opposite of what is being proven to reach a contradiction. Proofs by contradiction assume a statement and its negation to derive a logical inconsistency, proving the original statement. Proofs by contraposition prove the contrapositive statement, which is logically equivalent to the original.

Uploaded by

Manal Rizwan
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

METHODS OF PROOF

Terminology
• A theorem is a statement that can be shown to be true (via a proof)
• A proof is a sequence of statements that form an argument
• Axioms are statements taken to be self evident or assumed to be true
• A lemma (plural lemmas or lemmata) is a theorem useful within the
proof of a theorem
• A corollary is a theorem that can be established from theorem that
has just been proven
• A proposition is usually a ‘less’ important theorem
• A conjecture is a statement whose truth value is unknown
• The rules of inference are the means used to draw conclusions from
other assertions, and to derive an argument or a proof
Proofs
• A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth of a
mathematical statement

• A proof can use the hypotheses of the theorem,


• if any, axioms assumed to be true, and previously
proven

• A theorem is a statement that can be shown to be true (via a proof)


• Axioms are statements taken to be self evident or assumed to be true
Rules of Inference
Visualization of Proofs
Inference Rules - General Form
Inference Rules & Implications
Some Inference Rules
Proofs
• Using these ingredients and rules of inference, the final
step of the proof establishes
• the truth of the statement being proved.

• Formal proofs
• statements involving propositions and quantified statements are
true
• All steps were supplied, and the rules for each step in the argument
were given.
• Informal proofs
• more than one rule of inference may be used in each step,
• where steps may be skipped,
• where the axioms being assumed
10

Proof methods
1. Direct proofs
2. Indirect proofs
1. Proof by contradiction
2. Proof by contraposition
11

Direct proofs
• Consider an implication: p→q
• If p is true, then the implication is always true
• Thus, show that if p is true, then q is true

• To perform a direct proof,


• 1. assume that p is true, and
• 2. use p to show that q must be true
15

Indirect proofs: Proof by contrapositive

• Contrapositive
Conditional proposition of the form
• 'if not B then not A' (the contrapositive of 'if A then B')
contrapositive
18

Indirect proofs: Proof by contrapositive


• Consider an implication: p→q
• It’s contrapositive is ¬q→¬p
• Is logically equivalent to the original implication!
• If the antecedent (¬q) is false, then the contrapositive is always
true
• Thus, show that if ¬q is true, then ¬p is true

• To perform an indirect proof, do a direct proof on the


contrapositive
23

Proof by contradiction
• Contradiction
• (logic) a statement that is necessarily false
• "the statement 'he is brave and he is not brave' is a contradiction“

• Given a statement p, assume it is false


• Assume ¬p

• Prove that ¬p cannot occur


• A contradiction exists

• Given a statement of the form p→q


• To assume it’s false, you only have to consider the case where p is
true and q is false
Proof by contradiction
25

Proof by contradiction example


• Prove that if n is an integer and n 3+5 is odd, then n is even
• Rephrased: If n3+5 is odd, then n is even
• Thus, p is “n3+5” is odd, q is “n is even”
• Assume p and q
• Assume that n3+5 is odd, and n is odd
• Since n is odd:
• n=2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd numbers)
• n3+5 = (2k+1)3+5 = 8k3+12k2+6k+6 = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3)
• As n = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3) is 2 times an integer, n must be even
• Thus, we have concluded q
• Contradiction!
• We assumed q was false, and showed that this assumption implies that q must be
true
• As q cannot be both true and false, we have reached our contradiction
Example

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