Unit III-B

Anatomy and Physiology of tissues & membranes

By
Muhammad Shahid
MSN, BSN, DPBCN, RN, BSc
 Objectives
At the end of this lecture learner will be able to :
1. Define tissue
2. Discuss the types of tissues in detail.
3. Explain Functions of tissues.
4. Discuss the gland and its types
5. Define membrane and Understand its types.
 Tissue
It is a group or collection of similar cells grouped together to perform a
particular function.
Elementary tissues:
There are four types of elementary tissues in the human body.
1. Epithelial tissues
2. Muscular tissues
3. Nervous tissues
4. Connective tissues
 1-Epithelial tissues
• They cover the surface of body eg. Skin, and are also found lining cavities and
tubes.
• It is divided into two
1. Simple epithelial tissues:
Made up of a single layer of cells and divided into four types.
a. Pavement or squamous epithelium:
I. They are like thin plates.
II. Form air sacs in lungs.
III. Also line heart and heart vessels.
 1-Epithelial tissues
b. Columnar epithelium tissues:
I. They line duct of most glands and almost whole of digestive tract.
II. They have Cubical appearance.
c. Ciliated epithelial tissues:
III. Look like columnar epithelium but have fine hair like process called cilia on the
edge.
IV. Cilia help in movement.
V. In air passages, cilia prevents ducts from entering the lungs.
VI. In uterine tubes, cilia helps to move the ovum into the uterus.
d. Goblet epithelium tissues:
VII. Mucus secreting cells.
VIII. They line the walls of ducts and gland.
IX. Also found in stomach and colon.
 2. Compound epithelium
They are made up of more than one layer of cells and divided into two.
a. Stratified epithelium tissues:
I. Forms epidermal layer of skin.
II. Line mouth , pharynx , esophagus
b. Transitional epithelium tissues:
I. Line urinary bladder, kidneys, uterus and parts of urethra.
Functions of epithelial tissues:
1. Protection
2. Secretion
3. Absorption
4. Movement
 Glands
Glands are organ which produce secretion by collecting substances from blood which they
use to make important juices.
Types of glands:
1. Simple tubular glands:
Are those glands which pour their secretion directly on the surface where it is used. eg. Gastric and
intestinal gland.
2. Secular glands:
Are those glands which pour their secretion indirectly by means of ducts on the surface where it is
used and are divided into two types.

a. Simple saccular gland

b. Compound saccular or racemose gland.
e.g. salivary glands, liver, pancreas.
 Glands
3. Ductless or endocrine gland:
Are those which pour their secretion directly into the blood stream.
Their reactions are called hormones. e.g.. Thyroid gland , ovaries etc.
Duct: it is a tube carries the secretion from glands where it is produced to the where it is used.
Pituitary gland:
I. Type of endocrine gland
II. Known as master gland
III. It controls the activates of all endocrine gland.
Liver:
IV. Type of compound saccular or racemose gland.
V. Largest and heaviest gland in the body.
Pancreas:
VI. Only gland in your body which is half exocrine and half is endocrine.
 Membrane
Membranes are layers of specialized cells which line cavities and cover
organs.
Types of membrane:
1. Mucous membrane:
I. Line alimentary canal genitourinary and respiratory tract.
II. Secret mucous which is made up of water, salt, protein mucus.
2. Synovial membrane:
I. Line cavities of joints
II. Secrets synovial fluid which prevents friction. Synovial fluid is thicker than
mucus and serous fluid.
 Membrane
3. Serous membrane:
I. Found in chest and abdomen.

II. Lining cavities and covering organs.

There are three types of serous membranes:

a. Pleura: cover lungs line thorax.

b. Pericardium: cover heart as a double layer.

c. Peritoneum: covers abdominal organs and lines abdomen.

 2-Muscle tissue
A muscle is a tissue which have the power to contract and helps in
movement.
a. Makes 40 – 50 % of body weight.
b. Chemical composition of muscle is
75 % of water
25 % solid
18 % of which is protein.
 Types of muscles
Muscles are divided according to :
1. Appearance:
a. Striated muscles: means having light and dark markings
b. Unstriated muscles: No light and dark markings.
2. Function:
a. Voluntary Muscles: means under control of nervous system.
b. Involuntary Muscles: means not under the control of nervous system.
3. Region:
c. Skeletal Muscles
d. Smooth Muscles
e. Cardiac Muscles
 Types of Muscles
1. Striped Muscles
a. Also known as striated , skeletal and voluntary.
b. Skeletal: because they are attached to the skeleton.
c. Striated: because they have light and dark markings.
d. Voluntary: because they are under the control of will or nervous system.
2. Unstriped Muscles:
e. Also known as visceral smooth muscles and involuntary.
f. Visceral: because they are found in internal organs such as stomach,
bladder, uterus and in coats of blood vessels.
g. Involuntary: because they are not under the control of nervous system oer
will.
 Types of Muscles
3. Sphincter Muscles:
a. Circular band of muscles situated at the opening of a canal or an orifice
closing it tightly. e.g.. Anal and urethral opening.
4. Cardiac Muscles:
b. They are striated like voluntary muscles but they have specialized property
of autonomic Rthymical contractions.
c. All heart actions are controlled by nervous supply.
 Muscles Contraction
Muscles contraction is divided into three stages or phases.
1. Latent period: when a muscles are stimulated (that is time when a muscles is
taking up stimulus)
2. Contraction: muscle become shorter and thick.
3. Muscles relaxes: after contraction muscles elongated (become larger).
Rate of contraction: Depends upon:
4. Strength: of stimulus
5. Weight: that the muscles have to move
6. Fatigue: when muscles become tired , contraction become slow.
7. Temperature: heat is best and contraction is fast, in cold temperature , the stimulus is
faster but after some time the contraction slow down.

Muscle Tone: it is the condition of the muscles in which the muscles are partially contracted.
All muscles are in the state of muscle tone while we are awake.
 3- Nervous tissue
Divided into three types. Functional unit is called neuron.
1. Gray matter: it forms the nerve cells (neurons).
2. White matter: It forms the nerve fibre.
3. Neuroglia:
It is the special kind of supporting cell, found only in nervous system which
holds and supports both the nerve and nerve fibers.
 Connective Tissue
Provides the framework of the body. It support all other tissue and connects them.
There are 9 types of connective tissues.
1. Adipose
2. Fibrous
3. Elastic
4. Cartilage
5. Areolar
6. Retiform lymphoid t
7. Mucoid
8. Fluid
9. Bone
 1-Adipose tissue
a. Also known as fatty tissue.
b. Found in all parts of the body.
c. Fat is deposited under the skin and around heart and kidneys.
d. No fat is found in the tissue of the eye lid and in cranial cavity.
Functions:
1. Helps to support organ and keep them in position. e.g kidney.
2. Forms protective layer or covering for the body.
3. Stores materials which can later be used up by the body.
4. Helps to retain heat.
 2-Fiberous tissue
a. Composed mostly of white fibers arranged in definite lines.
b. They are tough and strong.
c. Forms ligaments and tendons.
d. Fibers tissue lining skull and neural canal is called dura matter.
e. Fiberous tissues covering bones is called periosteum.

Ligaments: are strong flexible bundles which join bone to bone.

Tendons: are shiny cards that attach muscle to bone.
 3-Elastic Tissue
a. The type of tissue contains a large number of elastic fibers.
b. Found in walls of arteries and in tubes (bronchi) of respiratory
passages.
c. It helps to keep these passages open.
 4-Cartilage tissue
a. Also known as gristles.
b. Special kind of connective tissue.
c. Dense clear blue, white substance very firm but less firm then bone.
d. Found in joins and between bones.
e. Cartilage have no blood supply but is covered with a membrane
called perichondrium from which it gets its blood supply.
Characteristics of cartilage:
1. Firmness
2. Flexibility
3. Rigidity
 4-Cartilage tissue
Types of cartilage: there are three types of cartilage.
1. Hyaline cartilage:
a. Firm and elastic.
b. Cover ends of long bones.
c. Temporary cartilage from which bones are formed.
2. White Fibro Cartilage:
a. Composed of bundles of fibers.
b. Found in shoulder , knee or hip joints and intervertebral discs. The joint between vertebrae.
3. Elastic cartilage:
c. Also called yellow elastic cartilage.
d. Continuous yellow fibers.
e. Found in the lining of ear and epiglottis.
f. Very flexible like elastic.
 5-Areolar tissue
a. Loosely woven tissue.
b. Forms subcutaneous and sub mucous layer of the body.
Subcutaneous: under the skin.
Sub mucus: under the mucus membrane.
 6-Retiform Lymphoid tissue
a. Type of areolar tissue.
b. Lymph glands are made up of it. e.g. tonsils or spleen.
 7-Mucoid tissue
a. Found in umbilical cord at birth and in vitreous humour of eyes.

8-Fluid tissue:
Such as Blood and lymph.
 9-Bone tissue
a. Main supporting tissue of the body.
b. Hardest of all connective tissue.
c. Intracellular substance is very hard because of deposit of calcium
and phosphorous.
d. Provide framework of the body.
 Types of bone tissue
According to Macroscopic approach;
1. Compact bone tissue:
a. Hard and dense.
b. Found in flat bones and in shafts of long bones.
c. Covering all bones.
2. Spongy bone tissue:
d. Spongy in structure.
e. Found in ends of long bones and short bones and as layer between two
layers of compact tissue in flat bones e.g. scapula, cranium, ribs and
sternum.
 Terms related to bone tissue
a. Long bone has a shaft or diaphysis and extremities or epiphysis.
b. Osteoblasts are bone forming cells which later mature into
osteocytes.
c. Osteocytes: mature bone cells.
d. Osteoclasts are bone destroying cells.
 Functions of bone
1. Support. Bones provide a framework that supports the body and cradles its
soft organs. For example, bones of the lower limbs act as pillars to support
the trunk body when we stand, and the rib cage supports the thoracic wall.
2. Protection. The fused bones of the skull protect the brain. The vertebrae
surround the spinal cord, and the rib cage helps protect the vital organs of the
thorax.
3. Movement. Skeletal muscles, which attach to bones by tendons, use bones as
levers to move the body and its parts. As a result, we can walk, grasp objects,
and breath. The design of joints determines the types of movements possible.
4. Mineral and growth factor storage. Bone is a reservoir for minerals, most
importantly calcium and phosphate. The stored minerals are released into the
bloodstream in their ionic form as needed for distribution to all parts of the
body.
 Functions of bone
1. Blood cell formation. Most blood cell formation, or hematopoiesis,
occurs in the red marrow cavities of certain bones.
2. Triglyceride (fat) storage. Fat, a source of energy for the body, is
stored in bone cavities.
3. Hormone production. Bones produce osteocalcin, a hormone which
not only helps regulate bone formation, but also protects against
obesity, glucose intolerance, and diabetes mellitus.
 References
Waugh, A., & Grant, A. (2009). Ross and Wilson: Anatomy and
Physiology in Health and Illness. (11th edition). Churchill Livingstone