COURSE INSTRUCTOR: M.
FARAN ALI
What do psychologists hope to achieve?
In general, the goals of psychology as a science are to
describe, understand, predict, and control behavior.
Beyond that, psychology’s ultimate goal is to benefit
humanity (O’Neill, 2005).
A Quick look at the Goals
Description In scientific research, the process of naming and classifying.
Understanding In psychology, understanding is achieved when the causes
of a behavior can be stated.
Prediction An ability to accurately forecast behavior.
Control Altering conditions that influence behavior.
e.g., “bystander apathy”
• What is the nature of this behavior? (description)
• Why does it occur? (understanding and explanation)
• Can we forecast when it will occur? (prediction)
• What conditions affect it? (control)
Definition of Research
Research is a systematic and organized effort to investigate
critically and solve a specific problem.
An empirical investigation that is structured so that it
answers questions about the world.
Purpose of Research
Review and synthesis existing knowledge.
Investigate some existing problem.
Generate new knowledge.
Construct something new.
Explain new phenomenon.
Research Paradigms
Research Paradigms
PRIMARILY THERE ARE TWO PARADIGMS FOR CONDUCTING A RESEARCH.
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
Learning how individual experience and
The Key idea of Positivism is that the
interact with their social world, the
social world externally, and that is
meaning it has for the is considered an
properties should be measured through
objective methods. Interpretative qualitative
approach.
Two Main Paradigms
EMPIRICISM INTERPRETIVIST
•Quantitative •Qualitative
•Objectivistic •Phenomenologist
•Scientific •Subjectivist
•Experimentalist •Humanistic
•Traditionalist
Two Main Paradigms. . .
QUANTITATIVE METHODS QUALITATIVE METHODS
•Surveys •Case studies
•Cross-sectional studies •Ethnography
•Longitudinal studies •Phenomenological analysis
•Experimental studies or Narratives
•Case studies •Grounded theory
•Meta-analysis •Participative enquires
Quantitative versus Qualitative: The Main
Differences
QUANTITATIVE INTERPRETIVIST
•Use is made of more traditional or •Use of “newer” research methods
established methods such as: such as : case studies, ethnographic
experiments, surveys, field studies. studies, participative enquiry
•Positivistic research criteria are • Interpretivist research criteria are
well-developed. still evolving.
•Deductive in nature • Inductive in nature
Quantitative Approach
•A method which resembles to the natural sciences is quantitative method.
•The researcher is objective.
•Done to establish general law.
•Problems are reducible to smaller or manageable components.
•It is possible to conduct research objectively.
•Possible hypotheses are derived from scientific theories to be tested
empirically.
•Only phenomena which are observable and can be measured or counted
deserve to be regarded as data.
Qualitative Approach
•The researcher is subjective.
•The aim is to provide an in-depth understanding of the researcher subjects.
•Generally uses small samples that are deliberately selected for their
particular criteria i.e., not random.
•Evidence collection methods which typically involve clos contact between
the researcher and the subjects being studied.
•Evidence is detailed, information is rich and extensive
•Analysis is generally open to emergent concepts and ideas.
Types of Research
Types of Research
APPLIED RESEARCH BASIC RESEARCH
Undertaken to address an existing and The problem or issue under investigation
well-defined problem. is less specific in nature and the research
. is undertaken primarily to improve our
understanding of general issues, without
emphasis on its immediate application
Basic Research
•Conducted to generate knowledge •BR is often carried out in natural
for the sake of knowledge. settings specially in personality and
psychopathology research makes use
•Without being concerned with the
of non-experimental strategies.
immediate usefulness of the
knowledge generated usually guided •Most commonly, it can develop a
by theories and models and focuses on knowledge base for understanding an
testing theoretical propositions. applied problem.
•In the process of theory testing,
even relationships of small magnitude
are considered important if they have
a bearing on the validity of the theory.
Applied Research
•Applied Research is conducted to find •To identify variables that can be used
a solution to a problem that is affecting to predict a particular behavior.
some aspects of society.
•AR is sometimes narrower in scope
• its results are intended to be than basic research, focusing on
immediately useful in solving the problem behavior in only one or a few situations
and to improve the condition of society. rather than on general principles of
behavior that would apply to a variety of
•Although AR ifs frequently guided by
situations.
theory, it need not be.
•Applied research tends to be
•Its goal is to identify variables that
conducted in natural settings or case
have large impacts on the problem of
study strategies
interest.
Empirical versus Theoretical
•Empirical- based on, or guided by, the results of observation or experiment
only.
•Theoretical- contemplative, of the mind or intellectual faculties.
•In practice there is a dialectical relationship between theory and empiricism
that reinforce each other.
•There is always theoretical assumption associated with the collection of
evidence and is always evidence that underpin theory.
So What Is Psychological Research?
•Broad in nature.
•Investigate a problem faced by human beings in daily life and in
the workplace in need of solution.
•Strong emphasis on application of knowledge, not so interested in
basic research.
•Requires knowledge that will lead to changes in the way things
are doing.
Some Questions
•Why research?
•What to research?
•Where and How to research?
•When?
•What ethical issues?
What are you required to show?
•An understanding of the nature and purpose of the investigation.
•An ability to conceptualize, design and implemental meaningful research
project in academic discipline or area of professional practice that can be
completed within the period of study.
•Sufficient acqintance and understanding of the relevant research literature.
•Through understating of the appropriate research methods.
•Mastery of the necessary research techniques.
•Capable of assessing the significance of the findings.
•An independent ability to produce high research output of publishable
standard for peer reviewed and professional journals.
The Basic Process (Adopted: Hair et al., 2003, p50)
Phase 1: Formulation & Development
Existing Knowledge • Topic/Research Idea
Pertaining To The Problem • Theory
• Research Question
• Hypothesis
Phase IV: Documenting the research • Study Design
and adding to your contribution to new
knowledge
Phase II:
Phase III: Analytical Execution Implement Design
• Analysis data • Design Data
– Statistical analysis • Collection Devices
– Interpretation • Collect Data
• Draw inferences • Check Fro Errors
• Interpret results • Code Data
• Acknowledge limitation • Store Data
THE RESEARCH PROCESS
•The process of planning and conducting a research study involves using the
scientific method to address a specific question.
•During this process, the researcher moves from a general idea to actual
data collection and interpretation of the results.
•Along the way, the researcher is faced with a series of decisions about how
to proceed.
RESEARCH PROCESS
Common Sources of Research Topics
1. Personal Interests and Curiosities
2. Casual Observation
3. Practical Problems or Questions
4. Vague and Fleeting Thoughts
5. Reading Reports of Others Observations
6. Behavioral Theories
Common Mistakes in Choosing a
Research Topic
1. The Topic Does Not Interest the Student
2. The Topic Is Too Safe or Too Easy
3. The Topic Is Too Difficult
4. The Topic Is Too Broad
5. Sticking With the First Topic That Comes to Mind
6. Inadequate Literature on the Topic
Hypothesis
An informed speculation, which is set up to be tested, about the possible
relationship between two or more variables.
A variable should be:
•Testable and
•Refutable
So the a hypothesis is a tentative statement which can be approved or
disapproved
Or
A testable statement which can be refuted.
Hypothesis. . .
Testable
In addition to being logical, a good hypothesis must be testable; that is, it must
be possible to observe and measure all of the variables involved. In particular,
the hypothesis must involve real situations, real events, and real individuals.
◦ A testable hypothesis is one for which all of the variables, events, and individuals are real, and can be defined and observed.
Refutable
One characteristic of a testable hypothesis is that it must be refutable; that is, it
must be possible to obtain research results that are contrary to the hypothesis.
For example, if the hypothesis states that the treatment will cause an increase in
scores, it must be possible for the data to show no increase.
◦ A refutable hypothesis is one that can be demonstrated to be false. That is, it is possible for the outcome to be different from the
prediction.
Consider the following hypotheses that are not
testable or refutable:
Hypothesis: The more sins a man commits, the less likely he is to get into heaven.
Hypothesis: If old dogs could talk, they would spend most of their time reminiscing
about things they had smelled during their lives.
Hypothesis: If people could fly, there would be substantially fewer cases of depression.
Hypothesis: The human mind emits thought waves that influence other people, but
that cannot be measured or recorded in any way
Testable hypotheses
The following are examples of such hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1. For high school students, there is a relationship between
intelligence and creativity.
Hypothesis 2. There is a difference between the verbal skills of 3-year-old girls
and those of 3 year-old boys.
Hypothesis 3. The new therapy technique will produce significant improvement
for severely depressed patients.
Tips for stating some hypothesis
•Hypothesis is a tentative statement so, while stating the hypothesis consider the following
tips:
•Always use: “Would be”, “Will be”, “may be”, “is likely to be”, or “are likely to be”
•Common mistakes that usually made by students
•Don’t use “is or are”, “was or were”
•Moreover don’t use the word “Significant” while stating the hypothesis
Directional and Non-Directional Hypotheses
When there is no defined and/or mixed direction in literature, or your are
conducting any exploratory study, e.g.,
In Case the direction is not specified
1. Males are likely to be different in their level of self esteem from females
2. Older people are likely to be different in the strength of religious beliefs
from adolescents
3. Clinical psychologists are likely to be different in their level analytic
reasoning than social psychologists
4. Leisure time is related with happiness of women
Directional and Non-Directional Hypotheses. . .
Direction normally comes from the existing literature or theory. Normally
associated with the words, increase or decrease, strong or weak, positive and
negative etc.
In Case the direction is specified
1. Males are likely to have higher self esteem than females
2. Older people are likely to have stronger religious beliefs than adolescents
3. Clinical psychologists are likely to have better analytic reasoning than social
psychologists
4. With more leisure time available women are less likely to be happy
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