CURVES

Curves
• Curves are usually employed in lines of communication in
order that the change in direction at the intersection of the
straight lines shall be gradual.
• The lines connected by the curves are tangent to it and are
called Tangents or Straights.
• The curves are generally circular arcs but parabolic arcs are
often used in some countries for this purpose.
• Most types of transportation routes, such as highways,
railroads, and pipelines, are connected by curves in both
horizontal and vertical planes.
• The purpose of the curves is to deflect a vehicle travelling
along one of the straights safely and comfortably through a
deflection angle θ to enable it to continue its journey along the
other straight.

θ
 Classification of Curves
Curves

Horizontal Curves
Vertical Curves

Simple Curves

Compound Curves Circular Curves

Transition Curves

Reverse Curves Spiral Curves

(non-circular curves)

7
 Classification of Curves
1) Simple Curves: Consist of single circular curve Connecting two straights.
It is tangential to the two straights at the joining ends.
2) T1TT2 is a simple circular curve of radius R joining two straights T 1I and
T2I intersecting at I
Compound curves: Consist of 2 simple circular
curves of different radii, bending in the same
direction and lying on the same sides of their
common tangents, their centres being on the
same side of the curve.
Reverse curves: Consist of 2 simple circular
curves of equal or unequal radii, bending in
opposite direction with common tangent at their
junction (meeting Point), their center lying on
the opposite sides of the curve. Also known as
Serpentine Curve or S -curve
Transition Curves: Curve usually introduced
between a simple circular curve and a straight or
between two simple curves. It is also known as
easement curve.

Combined Curves:
Combination of simple
circular and transition
curves . Generally
preferred in railways and
highways
Vertical Curves: Curves in vertical plane, used to join two
intersecting grade lines. The reduced level of these curves
change from point to point in a gradual and systematic
manner.
• A vertical summit curve is provided when a rising gradient
joins a falling gradient.
• A vertical sag curve is provided when a falling gradient joins
a rising gradient.
Elements of Simple Circular Curve
• Back tangent or First Tangent ‐ AT₁ – Previous to the curve

• Forward Tangent or Second tangent‐ B T₂‐ Following the curve

• Point of Intersection ( P.I.) or Vertex. (v).If the tangents AT₁ and BT₂
.are produced they will meet in a point called the point of intersection

• Point of curve ( P.C.) –Beginning Point T₁ of a curve. Alignment

changes from a tangent to curve.

• Point of Tangency ‐ PT – End point of curve ( T₂ )

• Intersection Angle (Ø ) -The Angle AVB between tangent AV and

tangent VB
• Deflection Angle (Δ ) - The angle at P.I. between tangent
AI and IB
• Tangent Distance/Length – It is the distance between
P.C. and P.I.
• External Distance/Apex Distance – CI - The distance
from the mid point of the curve to P.I
• Length of curve – l -It is the total length of curve from
P.C. to P.T.
• Long Chord – It is the chord joining P.C. to P.T., T₁ T₂ is a
long chord
• Normal Chord: A chord between two successive regular
station on a curve is called normal chord. Normally , the
length of normal chord is 1 chain ( 2o mt).
• Sub chord-The chord shorter than normal chord
( shorter than 20 mt) is called sub chord)

• Versed sine – Distance CD -The distance between

mid point of long chord ( D ) and the apex point C, is
called versed sine. It is also called mid‐ ordinate ( M).

• Right hand curve: If the curve deflects to the right of

the direction of the progress of survey.

• Left hand curve : If the curve deflects to the left of

the direction of the progress of survey.
Designation of curve
The sharpness of the curve is designated by two
ways.
(1) By radius (R)
(2) By Degree of Curvature (D)

By radius ( R)
Curve is known by the length of its radius‐ R
 By Degree of Curvature (D)
Chord Definition Arc Definition
The Angle subtended at the The Angle subtended at
centre of curve by a chord of the centre of curve by an
30 or 20 mt. is called degree of arc of 30 or 20 mt. length
curvature. is called degree of curve.
If an angle subtended at Used in America, canada,
the centre of curve by a India etc.
chord of 20 mt is 5° , the
curve is called 5° curve
 Relation between Degree and Radius of Curve

By Chord Definition

For a 30m chord, from triangle T1OM

Sin D/2 = T1M/OT1

= 15/R

Or R = 15/Sin D/2

Since D is very small, Sin D/2 = D/2

15
R= ________________
D/2 * π/180

R= 1719/D (for 30m chord)

R= 1146/D(for 20m chord)

 Relation between Degree and Radius of Curve

By Arc Definition

If R is the radius of a curve and D is its degree for a 30m

arc, then
R * D * π/180 = 30
R = (30 * 180)/(D* π)
R = 1719/D

If D is the degree of a curve for a 20m arc, then

R * D * π/180 = 20
R = (20*180)/(D*π)
R = 1146/D
 Formulae for elements of a simple Circular curve

Length of the curve

Let the length of the curve T1CT2 be l and let R be its radius.

Hence, l = RΔ

l = RΔ*π/180……where Δ is in degrees

If a 30m arc or chord definition is used, then

l= 1719 /D * Δ * π/180
= 30 Δ/D

If a 20m arc or chord definition is used, then

l= 1149 /D * Δ * π/180
= 20 Δ/D
Tangent Length
Tangent length, T = IT1 = IT2
= R * Tan(Δ/2)

Long Chord Length

Long Chord length = L = T1DT2
From Triangle OT1D
Sin(Δ/2) = T1D/R
T1D = R Sin(Δ/2)
Hence L = 2R Sin(Δ/2)
Apex Distance
Apex distance, IC = IO – CO
= R Sec(Δ/2) - R
= R(Sec(Δ/2) -1)
Mid ordinate
Mid ordinate Oo = CD = CO-DO
= R-R cos(Δ/2)
= R(1- cos(Δ/2))
= R vers Δ/2
A circular curve has a 200m radius and 65
degree deflection angle. What is its degree (a)
by arc definition and (b) chord definition. Also
calculate:
1) Length of the curve
2) Tangent Length
3) Length of long chord
4) Apex distance
5) Mid ordinate
 Field Procedure of Rankine’s Method
1. Locate P.C(T1), P.T(T2) and P.I(I)
2. Set up the theodolite exactly at T1 and make its temporary adjustments.
3. Set the Vernier A to zero and bisect the PI. Clamp the lower plate.
4. Release the upper plate and set the Vernier A to read ∆1. The line of sight is
thus directed along T1a.
5. Hold the zero of the tape at T1, take a distance C1(T1a) and swing the tape with
an arrow till it is bisected by the theodolite. This establishes the first point a on
the curve.
6. Set the second deflection angle ∆2 on the scale so that the line of sight is set
along T1b.

7. With the zero of the tape held at a and an arrow at the other end(chord
distance = ab), swing the tape about a, till the arrow is bisected by the
theodolite at b. This establishes the second point on the curve.
8. Repeat the same steps till the last point on the curve is fixed
 Two Theodolite Method
• This method is most convenient when the ground is undulating , rough not
suitable for linear measurements.
• In this method, two theodolites are used and thus linear measurements
are completely eliminated.(Most accurate method).
• It is based on the principle that the angle between the tangent and the
chord is equal to the angle subtended by the chord in the opposite
segment.

Therefore

Angle IT1a = 𝛿1 = Angle aT2T1

And

Angle IT1b = 𝛿2 = Angle bT2T1

 Field Procedure of Two Theodolite method
1. Set up one theodolite at PC(T1) and the other at PT(T2).
2. Set the Vernier A of both the theodolites to zero.
3. Direct the theodolite at T1 towards I and the theodolite at T2
towards T1.
4. Set an angle 𝛿1 in both the theodolites so as to direct the line of
sights towards T1a, and T2a, thus the point a, the point of
intersection of the two line of sights is established on the curve.
5. Similarly, point b is established by setting 𝛿2 in both the
theodolites and bisecting the ranging rod at b.
6. Repeat the same steps, till last point on the curve is fixed.
7. This method is expensive and time consuming, but most accurate.
8. Various points are established independent of each other and thus
the error in establishing a point is not transferred to the
subsequent points.
 COMPOUND CURVES

• A Compound curve is a combination of two or more simple circular

curves with different radii.
• Two centered compound curve has two circular arcs of different
radii that deviate in the same direction and join at a common
tangent point also known as point of compound curvature.
• T1I and T2I are two straights intersecting at I.
• T1DT2 is the compound curve of radii R1 and R2
• D is the point of compound curvature
• MN is the common tangent making
deflection angles  Δ1,  Δ2 at M and N
so that
Δ =  Δ1 +  Δ2
From triangle IMN

IM/Sin Δ2 = IN/ SinΔ1 = MN/Sin(180-( Δ1+ Δ2))

Hence,

IM = MN Sin Δ2/Sin(180-( Δ1+ Δ2)) or

IM = MN Sin Δ2/Sin Δ

Also, Length of main tangents IT1 and IT2

IN = MN Sin Δ1/Sin Δ IT1 = T1M + MI

Common Tangent MN: = R1 Tan Δ1/2 + MN Sin Δ2/Sin Δ

MD = R1 Tan Δ1/2 DN = R2 Tan Δ2/2

IT2 = T2N + NI
MN = MD + DN
= R2 Tan Δ2/2 + MN Sin Δ1/Sin Δ
Or
MN = R1 Tan Δ1/2 + R2 Tan Δ2/2
 TRANSITION CURVE

• A curve of varying radius is known as ‘transition curve’ The radius of such

curve varies from infinity to certain fixed value A transition curve is
provided on both ends of the circular curve
• The transition curve is also called as spiral or easement curve

OBJECTIVE OF PROVIDING TRANSITION CURVES

1. To accomplish gradually the transition from the tangent to the circular
curve, and from the circular curve to the tangent
2. To obtain a gradual increase of curvature from zero at the tangent point
to the specified quantity at the junction of the transition curve with the
circular curve
3. To provide the super elevation gradually from zero at the tangent point
to the specified amount on the circular curve
4. To avoid the overturning of the vehicle
REQUIREMENT OF IDEAL TRANSITION CURVES

• It should meet the original straight tangentially

• It should meet the circular curve tangentially
• Its radius at the junction with the circular curve should be the same as
that of the circular curve
• The rate of increase of curvature along the transition curve should be
same as that of in increase of super elevation
• The length should be such that the full super elevation is attained at the
junction with the circular curve

The types of transition curve which are in common use are

• Cubic parabola
• A clothoid or spiral
• A lemniscate
 SUPERELEVATION

When a vehicle passes from a straight path to curved one, the forces acting on it are

i.The weight of the vehicle

ii.The centrifugal force both acting through the CG of vehicle

Since the centrifugal force is always acts in the direction perpendicular to the axis of
rotation which is vertical, its direction is always horizontal. The effect of the
centrifugal force is to push the vehicle off the track or rail. In order to counteract
the action, the plane of rails or the road surface is made perpendicular to the
resultant of centrifugal force and weight of the vehicle.

In other word, the outer rail is super elevated or raised above the inner one
Similarly the road should be “ i e the outer edge of the road should be raised
above the inner one, the raising of the outer rail or outer edge above the inner
one, being called as super elevation or cant

The amount of cant is depend on vehicle and radius of curve

Let,
W = weight of the vehicle
P = the centrifugal force
v = the speed of the vehicle in m/s
g = =the acceleration due to gravity 9 81 m/s 2
R = the radius of the curve in m
h = the super elevation in m
B = Width of pavement(m)
Θ = angle of super elevation

For equilibrium, the resultant R of these two forces

should be perpendicular to the road surface

Tan θ = P/W also, Tan θ = h/B

Hence, h/B = P/W =

  for highways   for railways , where G is the gauge of track

The amount of super elevation is limited about 1/12 th of the gauge, 1/10 th
being permitted under special circumstances
Centrifugal Ratio:
The ratio of the centrifugal force and the weight is called centrifugal ratio.

Centrifugal ratio = P/W = v2/gR

The maximum value of centrifugal ratio is taken as equal to ¼ for roads and 1/8 for
railways

For roads, P/W = 1/4 = V2/gR  V = Sqrt(gR/4)

For railways, P/W = 1/8 = V2/gR  v = Sqrt(gR/8)

For a given radius , the speed on a highway can be higher than on railways by √2 times.

Hands off Velocity

For stability, v = Sqrt(gRtanθ )

If a vehicle moves with a velocity v on a curve of radius R with super elevation θ , the
vehicle steers itself along the curve without the driver using the steering wheel. Such a
velocity is known as hands off velocity.
 Length of Transition Curves
The length of transition curve should be such that full super
elevation is attained at the end of transition curve applied at a
suitable rate.

By rate of super elevation method

If the rate of application of super elevation is 1 in n of the length
of the curve and h is the super elevation, the length of the
transition curve is given by
L = nh
Where h = Gv2/gR (metres)

The value of n may vary between 300 and 1200

By time rate
• Let the time rate of application of super elevation be x cm/s,
length of transition curve be L metre, super elevation be h cm,
and speed of the vehicle be v m/s

• As x cm cant is applied in 1 second, full cant of h cm will be

applied in h/x seconds ( = t seconds)

• Distance travelled = speed * time

= v*t
L = v* h/x
L = Gv3/xgR (metres)
By rate of change of radial acceleration
• This rate should be such that the passenger should not
experience any sensation of discomfort when the train
travelling over the curve. It is taken as 30 cm per sec 3.
• Length of the transition curve is given by
L = v3/0.3R ( v is in m/s)
L = V3/14R ( V is in kmph)

If centrifugal ratio is given and comfort condition holds good

L = 4.5 √R ……..For railways

L = 12.8√R……. For roadways
 Reverse Curve
• A reverse or serpentine curve is defined as a compound curve having two
circular arcs of same or different radii, but curving in opposite directions with
a common tangent.(Point of reverse curvature)
Uses
• Reverse curves are adopted where the straights are parallel or when their
angle of intersection is too acute.
• Frequently used for railway sidings
• Adopted for roads and railways designed for slow speeds
• They are unavoidable in valley regions
They should be avoided in highways and railways designed for high speeds
due to following reasons:
Sudden change of super elevation is needed from one edge to the other one ,
near the point of reverse curvature
Sudden change of curvature and direction reduces the life of vehicle and gives
discomfort to passengers
It is not possible to provide proper super elevation at point of reverse
curvature
It is therefore suggested to provide a straight length or a reversed transition
curve between two branches of reverse curve.
 Elements of Reverse Curve

Non – Parallel Straights Parallel Straights

•  
Reverse curve between non-straights
Given angles Δ1 & Δ2, length of common tangent (Δ2 > Δ1)- to find out common radius R
and chainage of T1,E and T2

R = d/[tan Δ1/2 + tan Δ2/2] , Chainage of T1 = Chainage of I – IT1

Chainage of E = Chainage of T1 + Length of first arc(RΔ1/180)

Chainage of T2 = Chainage of E + length of second arc(RΔ2/180)

Reverse curve between parallel straights

T1T2 = L = T1C + CT2

L = 2(R1+R2)SinΔ/2

But sinΔ/2 = V/L

There fore , L = 2(R1+R2)* V/L

 L = √2V(R1+R2)

D = (R1+R2)Sin Δ

V = (R1+R2)(1-cos Δ)
 Vertical Curves
• A curve used to connect two different grade lines of railways or
highways is called a vertical curve.
• These are provided to avoid an abrupt change in rate of grade
and provide safe and comfortable journey.
• Absence of vertical curves causes sudden impact or jerk to
vehicles which may be dangerous.
• A vertical curve may be circular or parabolic, preferably parabolic
due to following reasons:
• It is flatter at top and hence provides a longer sight distance,
greater the sight distance, lesser is the possibility of any accident.
• Rate of change of grade is uniform through out and hence
produces best riding qualities
• Simple in computation works.
The general equation of a parabolic curve with a vertical axis is
given by
Y = ax2 +bx+c

The slope of the this curve at any point is given by

dy/dx = 2ax + b
The rate of change of slope or rate of change of grade is given by

d2y/ dx2 = 2a = constant

Thus, for a parabola with a vertical axis, the rate of change of

grade is uniform and it ensures a comfortable safe ride
Grade:
The grade or gradient of a road/rail can be expressed either in
percentage or ratio

Rate of change of gradient

The rate of the algebraic difference of two gradients meeting at
the apex of a curve to the length of curve is known as rate of
change of gradient.
r = (g1-g2)/L

r=rate of change of gradient, L = Length of curve, g1,g2 = grades

For first class railways, r is 0.10% per 30m pegs in summit curves
and 0.05% per 30m pegs in sag curves+
 Types of vertical curves
Summit Curve or Convex curve
This is provided in either of the following three cases:
• When an upgrade is followed by a downgrade
• When a steeper upgrade is followed by a milder upgrade
• When a milder downgrade is followed by a steeper
downgrade
Sag Curve or Concave curve or valley curve
• When a downgrade is followed by an upgrade
• When a steeper downgrade is followed by a milder
downgrade
• When a milder upgrade is followed by steeper upgrade
 Length of vertical curve
Length of the curve = Total change of grade/Permissible rate of
change of grade

For example, If two grades of +1.2% and -0.9% meet, the length
of the curve required for a rate of change of grade of 0.1% per
30m chain will be

L = [1.2-(-0.9)/0.1] * 30 = 630m
Length of a vertical curve should always be an even number of
chains so that half of its can be provided on either side of the
apex.
 Sight Distance
For safe movement of vehicles on roads, the aspect of visibility play an
important role.
The driver of the vehicle should be able to see clearly at least a certain
portion of road length to avoid collision or accident.
The absolute minimum length of the road required for this purpose is
known as stopping sight distance or non-passing sight distance

As per IRC, SSD is defined as the length of highway required to bring a

vehicle to a stop at various design speeds when the eye of the drive is
120cm above the pavement and the object causing the stop is 15cm
above pavement.

SSD is dependent on efficiency of brakes, frictional resistance between

road and tyres, slope of road, speed of vehicle and reaction time of driver
Sight distance (S) less than the length of the
curve
L = NS2/800h , Where N= g1-g2
Sight distance(S) greater than length of curve(L)
L = 2S – [200(√h1+ √h2)2]/(g1-g2)