What is a Diode?

• A diode is defined as a two-terminal electronic component that only

conducts current in one direction (so long as it is operated within a
specified voltage level). An ideal diode will have zero resistance in
one direction, and infinite resistance in the reverse direction.
Types of Diode

The types of diode include:

• Zener diode
• P-N junction diode
• Tunnel diode
• Varactor diode
• Schottky diode
• Photodiode
• PIN diode
• Laser diode
• Avalanche diode
• Light emitting diode
• Semiconductor diodes are the most common type of diode. These diodes
begin conducting electricity only if a certain threshold voltage is present
in the forward direction (i.e. the “low resistance” direction). The diode is
said to be “forward biased” when conducting current in this direction.
When connected within a circuit in the reverse direction (i.e. the “high
resistance” direction), the diode is said to be “reverse biased”.

• A PN junction is the simplest form of the semiconductor diode. In ideal

conditions, this PN junction behaves as a short circuit when it is forward
biased, and as an open circuit when it is in the reverse biased. The name
diode is derived from “di–ode” which means a device that has two
electrodes
Diode Symbol

• The symbol of a diode is shown below. The arrowhead points in the

direction of conventional current flow in the forward biased condition.
That means the anode is connected to the p side and the cathode is
connected to the n side.
 Working Principle of Diode
• A diode’s working principle depends on the interaction of n-type and p-
type semiconductors. An n-type semiconductor has plenty of free
electrons and a very few numbers of holes. In other words, we can say
that the concentration of free electrons is high and that of holes is very
low in an n-type semiconductor. Free electrons in the n-type
semiconductor are referred as majority charge carriers, and holes in the
n-type semiconductor are referred to as minority charge carriers.
• A p-type semiconductor has a high concentration of holes and a low
concentration of free electrons. Holes in the p-type semiconductor are
majority charge carriers, and free electrons in the p-type semiconductor
are minority charge carriers.
Unbiased Diode
• Now let us see what happens when one n-type region and one p-type
region come in contact. Here due to concentration differences, majority
carriers diffuse from one side to another. As the concentration of holes is
high in the p-type region and it is low in the n-type region, the holes
start diffusing from the p-type region to the n-type region.
• Again the concentration of free electrons is high in the n-type region and
it is low in the p-type region and due to this reason, free electrons start
diffusing from the n-type region to the p-type region.
• The free electrons diffusing into the p-type region from the n-type region
would recombine with holes available there and create uncovered
negative ions in the p-type region. In the same way, the holes diffusing
into the n-type region from the p-type region would recombine with free
electrons available there and create uncovered positive ions in the n-type
region.
• In this way, there would a layer of negative ions in the p-type side and a
layer of positive ions in the n-type region appear along the junction line
of these two types of semiconductors. The layers of uncovered positive
ions and uncovered negative ions form a region in the middle of the
diode where no charge carrier exists since all the charge carriers get
recombined here in this region. Due to the lack of charge carriers, this
region is called the depletion region.
Forward Biased Diode
• Now let us see what happens if a positive terminal of a source is
connected to the p-type side and the negative terminal of the source is
connected to the n-type side of the diode and if we increase the voltage
of this source slowly from zero.
• In the beginning, there is no current flowing through the diode. This is
because although there is an external electrical field applied across the
diode, the majority charge carriers still do not get sufficient influence
of the external field to cross the depletion region. As we told that the
depletion region acts as a potential barrier against the majority charge
carriers.
• This potential barrier is called forward potential barrier. The majority
charge carriers start crossing the forward potential barrier only when the
value of externally applied voltage across the junction is more than the
potential of the forward barrier. For silicon diodes, the forward barrier
potential is 0.7 volt and for germanium diodes, it is 0.3 volt.
• When the externally applied forward voltage across the diode becomes
more than the forward barrier potential, the free majority charge carriers
start crossing the barrier and contribute the forward diode current. In
that situation, the diode would behave as a short-circuited path and the
forward current gets limited by only externally connected resistors to the
diode.
 Reverse Biased Diode
• Now let us see what happens if we connect the negative terminal of the voltage
source to the p-type side and positive terminal of the voltage source to the n-type
side of the diode. At that condition, due to electrostatic attraction of the negative
potential of the source, the holes in the p-type region would be shifted more
away from the junction leaving more uncovered negative ions at the junction.
• In the same way, the free electrons in the n-type region would be shifted more
away from the junction towards the positive terminal of the voltage source
leaving more uncovered positive ions in the junction. As a result of this
phenomenon, the depletion region becomes wider. This condition of a diode is
called the reverse biased condition. At that condition, no majority carriers cross
the junction, and they instead move away from the junction. In this way, a diode
blocks the flow of current when it is reverse biased.
• As we already told at the beginning of this article that there are always
some free electrons in the p-type semiconductor and some holes in the n-
type semiconductor. These opposite charge carriers in a semiconductor are
called minority charge carriers. In the reverse biased condition, the holes
find themselves in the n-type side would easily cross the reverse-biased
depletion region as the field across the depletion region does not present
rather it helps minority charge carriers to cross the depletion region.
• As a result, there is a tiny current flowing through the diode from positive
to the negative side. The amplitude of this current is very small as the
number of minority charge carriers in the diode is very small. This current
is called reverse saturation current.
DIODE CHARACTERISTICS:
Forward-biased diode:
• When the diode is forward-biased and conducting current, there is a
small voltage dropped across it, leaving most of the battery voltage
dropped across the resistor.
• For silicon diodes, the typical forward voltage is 0.7V, nominal. For
germanium diodes, the forward voltage is only 0.3V.
 Reverse-biased diode:
• When the battery's polarity is reversed and the diode becomes reverse-
biased, it drops all of the battery's voltage and leaves none for the lamp. If
we consider the diode to be a sort of self-actuating switch (closed in the
forward-bias mode and open in the reverse-bias mode), this behavior
makes sense.
Diode Characteristics Curve or, V-I Curve
Ideal vs Practical diode characteristic curve
Si, Ge, GaAs diode characteristics curve
Zener diode
• Zener diode is basically like an ordinary PN junction diode but
normally operated in reverse biased condition. But ordinary PN
junction diode connected in reverse biased condition is not used as
Zener diode practically. A Zener diode is a specially designed, highly
doped PN junction diode.
Zener Diode Circuit

Zener Diode is nothing but a single diode connected in a reverse bias, we have
already stated that. A diode connected in reverse bias position in a circuit is
shown below,
Characteristics of a Zener Diode
The above diagram shows the V-I characteristics of a zener
diode. When the diode is connected in forward bias, this
diode acts as a normal diode but when the reverse bias
voltage is greater than zener voltage, a sharp breakdown
takes place. In the V-I characteristics above Vz is the zener
voltage. It is also the knee voltage because at this point the
current increases very rapidly
Avalanche Vs Zener Breakdown

• The breakdown which occurs because of the collision of the electrons

inside the PN-junction is called avalanche breakdown, whereas the
Zener breakdown occurs when the heavy electric field is applied
across the PN- junction.
 Breakdown Characteristic Graph
• The graphical representation of the Avalanche and Zener breakdown is
shown in the figure below
Key Differences Between Avalanche & Zener Breakdown
The breakdown which occurs because of the collision of the electrons
inside the PN-junction is called avalanche breakdown, whereas the
Zener breakdown occurs when the heavy electric field is applied across
the PN- junction.
The avalanche breakdown occurs in the thick region, whereas the
Zener breakdown occurs in the thin region.
After the avalanche breakdown, the junction of the diode will not regain
its original position, whereas after the Zener breakdown the junction
regains its original position.
The existence of the electric field is more on the Zener breakdown as
compared to the avalanche breakdown. Because the mechanism of Zener
breakdown occurs in the heavily doped region.
The avalanche breakdown produces the pairs of electrons and holes
because of the thermal effects, whereas the Zener diode produces the
electrons.
The avalanche breakdown occurs in low doping material, whereas the
Zener breakdown occurs in high doping material.
The avalanche breakdown voltage causes because of high reverse
potential because it is lightly doped whereas the Zener breakdown is
because of low reverse potential.
The temperature coefficient of the avalanche breakdown is positive,
whereas the temperature coefficient of Zener breakdown is negative.
Reverse Recovery Time :The time it takes a diode to reduce the reverse
current to zero when going from forward bias to reverse bias. Contrary to
popular opinion and idealized models diodes do conduct in the reverse
direction, but only for a short while.
A fast recovery diode has a smaller reverse recovery time than a standard
diode.

trr = ts + tt
where, ts= storage time (the period of time required
for the minority carriers to return to their majority
carrier state in the opposite material )

tt = transition interval
Define semiconductor.
• Semiconductors are the materials that possess the property of
electrical conductivity less than conductors. The charge carriers in
case of semiconductors are electrons and holes.
• When the temperature is absolute zero, then no any movement of
charge carriers takes place in case of semiconductors. In such case, it
behaves as insulators.
• But in order to have a considerable flow of charge carriers to take
place certain potential must be provided to them that can excite the
electrons to another energy level. Thereby, generating electric
current.
Difference among conductor, insulator and
semiconductor.
BASIS FOR COMPARISON CONDUCTOR INSULATOR SEMICONDUCTOR
Definition. The elements which allow The elements which do The elements whose
the flow of electric current not allow any flow of conductivity lies between
through it by the electric charge. insulators and conductors.
application of voltage.
Electric Conductivity. Good conductor. Bad conductor. At 0K , it works as an
insulator while by
applying thermal agitation
or by adding impurity
becomes good conductor.
Examples. Copper, Mercury, Silver, Al, Wood, Rubber, Glass, Germanium, Silicon,
Water, Acids, Human Ebonite, Mica, Sulphur, Cotton, Wool, Marble,
Body, Metallic Salt, Dry air. Sand, Paper, Ivory, Moist
Charcoal. air.
Energy Band. Conduction band and Conduction band and Conduction band and
valence band overlap each valence band are valence band separated
other. separated by 6eV. by 1eV.
Temperature Coefficient. Positive temperature Negative Temperature Negative Temperature
Coefficient of resistance. Coefficient of resistance. Coefficient of resistance.
Charge carriers. Electrons. They do not contain any Intrinsic charge carriers
charge carriers. are holes and electrons.
Number of Charge Very High. Negligible. Low.
Carriers.
Effect of temperature on Conductivity decreases. Conductivity Increases. Conductivity Increases.
conductivity.
Current flow Due to free electrons Due to negligible free Due to holes and free
electrons electrons
0 Kelvin Behavior Acts like a superconductor Acts like an insulator Acts like an insulator
Diode as a Rectifier: Half Wave Rectifier & Full Wave Rectifier

The main application of p-n junction diode is in rectification circuits. These

circuits are used to describe the conversion of a.c signals to d.c in power
supplies. Diode rectifier gives an alternating voltage which pulsates in
accordance with time. The filter smoothes the pulsation in the voltage and to
produce d.c voltage, a regulator is used which removes the ripples.
There are two primary methods of diode rectification:
• Half Wave Rectifier
• Full Wave Rectifier
What is Half Wave Rectifier?

• In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each a.c input cycle is rectified.

When the p-n junction diode is forward biased, it gives little
resistance and when it is reversing biased it provides high resistance.
During one-half cycles, the diode is forward biased when the input
voltage is applied and in the opposite half cycle, it is reverse biased.
 Working of Half Wave Rectifier
• The half wave rectifier has both positive and negative cycles. During the
positive half of the input, the current will flow from positive to negative
which will generate only positive half cycle of the a.c supply. When a.c
supply is applied to the transformer, the voltage will be decreasing at the
secondary winding of the diode. All the variations in the a.c supply will
reduce and we will get the pulsating d.c voltage to the load resistor.
• In the second half cycle, current will flow from negative to positive
and the diode will be reverse biased. Thus, at the output side, there
will be no current generated and we cannot get power at the load
resistance. A small amount of reverse current will flow during reverse
bias due to minority carriers
Characteristics of Half Wave Rectifier
• Following are the characteristics of half wave rectifier:
Ripple Factor
Ripples are the oscillations that are obtained in the DC which is corrected by
using filters such as inductors and capacitors. These ripples are measured with
the help of ripple factor and is denoted by γ. Ripple factor tells us the amount
of ripples present in the output DC. Higher the ripple factor, more is the
oscillation at the output DC and lower is the ripple factor, less is the oscillation
at the output DC.
• Ripple factor is the ratio of rms value of AC component of output voltage to
the DC component of the output voltage.
DC Current
DC current is given as:

DC Output Voltage

The output DC voltage appears at the load resistor RL

Form Factor
Form factor is the ratio of rms value to the DC value. For a half wave rectifier
form factor is 1.57.
Rectifier Efficiency
Rectifier efficiency is the ratio of output DC power to the input AC power. For a
half wave rectifier, rectifier efficiency is 40.6%.
Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier
• Affordable
• Simple connections
• Easy to use as the connections are simple
• Number of components used are less

Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier

• Ripple production is more
• Harmonics are generated
• Utilization of transformer is very low
• Efficiency of rectification is low
Applications of Half Wave Rectifier
• Following are the uses of half wave rectification:
• Power rectification: Half wave rectifier is used along with transformer for
power rectification as a powering equipment.
• Signal demodulation: Half wave rectifiers are used for demodulating the AM
signals.
• Signal peak detector: Half wave rectifier is used for detecting the peak of the
incoming waveform.
 What is Full Wave Rectifier?
Full wave rectifier circuits are used for producing an output voltage or
output current which is purely DC. The main advantage of full wave
rectifier over half wave rectifier is that such as the average output voltage
is higher in full wave rectifier, there is less ripple produced in full wave
rectifier when compared to half wave rectifier.
 Working of Full Wave Rectifier
• Full wave rectifier utilizes both halves of each a.c input. When the 
p-n junction is forward biased, the diode offers low resistance and
when it is reversing biased it gives high resistance. The circuit is
designed in such a manner that in the first half cycle if the diode is
forward biased then in the second half cycle it is reverse biased and so
on.
Characteristics of Full Wave Rectifier
Following are the characteristics of full wave rectifier:

Ripple Factor
Ripple factor for a full wave rectifier is given as:

DC Current
• Currents from both the diodes D1 and D2 are in the same direction when they
flow towards load resistor RL
DC Output Voltage
DC output voltage is obtained at the load resistor RL and is given as:

Form Factor
Form factor is the ratio of rms value of current to the output DC voltage. Form
factor of a full wave rectifier is given as 1.11

Rectifier Efficiency
Rectifier efficiency is used as a parameter to determine the efficiency of the
rectifier to convert AC into DC. It is ratio of DC output power to the AC input
power. Rectifier efficiency of a full wave rectifier is 81.2%.
Types of Full Wave Rectifier
• There are two main types of full wave rectifiers and they are:
• Two diode full wave rectifier circuit (requires center-tapped transformer and is used
in vacuum tubes)
• Bridge rectifier circuit (doesn’t require centre-tapped transformer and is used along
with transformers for efficient usage)

Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier

• The rectifier efficiency of a full wave rectifier is high
• The power loss is very low
• Number of ripples generated are less

Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier

• Very expensive
Difference between Half Wave Rectifier and Full Wave Rectifier

Parameter Half Wave Rectifier Full Wave Rectifier

Full wave rectifier is a
Half wave rectifier is a
rectifier which is used for
rectifier which is used for
Definition converting both the half
converting one half cycle
cycles of AC input into DC
of AC input to DC output
output
2 or 4 depending on the
No. of diodes used 1
type of circuit
Form factor 1.57 1.11
Rectifier efficiency 40.6% 81.2%
Ripple factor of half wave Ripple factor of full wave
Ripple factor
rectifier is more rectifier is less