The Complex Sentence
The classification of clauses
1. By clause elements and verb patterns (7 types – see
Chapter 2: Elements of grammar)
2. Subordinate and super-ordinate clauses (main clause
and dependent clauses)
3. Subordinate clauses:
- By functions.
- By structural types.
Subordination
-i.e.Non-symmetrical
one clause is relation held
Subordination Non-symmetrical
-between relation,
two clauses: one clause is
a constituent/ part of the other
1 2 21
[I like John [because John likes me] ]
1 1
[superordinate/ independent/ main clause ]
2 2
[subordinate/ dependent clause]
Subordination
Subordination Hierarchy of clauses
X- Y- Z-
( I think [ that you can do it { if you try} ] )
S V O A
Z = subordinate to Y
Y = subordinate to X
Y & Z = dependent clauses
X = independent clause
Classifications of subordinate clauses
Classifications of subordinate clauses
By structural type By functional type
Classifications of subordinate clauses
By structural type Finite clause
Nonfinite clause
Verbless clause
Classifications of subordinate clauses
By structural type Finite clause
Nonfinite clause
- contains a subject and a predicate
- verb phrase having tense, person & number concord, & mood
Verbless clause
Classifications of subordinate clauses
By structural type Finite clause
Nonfinite clause
Infinitive with to -ing participle
Infinitive without to -ed participle
Classifications of subordinate clauses
By structural type Finite clause
Nonfinite clause
Infinitive with to -ing participle
Infinitive without to -ed participle
Without S: The best thing would be to tell everybody.
With S: The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.
Classifications of subordinate clauses
By structural type Finite clause
Nonfinite clause
Infinitive with to -ing participle
Without S: Infinitive without
Leaving the room,tohe tripped over
-ed the
participle
mat.
With S: Her aunt having left the room, I declared my
passionate love for Celia..
Classifications of subordinate clauses
By structural type Finite clause
Nonfinite clause
Infinitive with to -ing participle
Infinitive without to -ed participle
Without S: All I did was hit him on the head.
With S: Rather than John do it, I’d prefer
to give the job to Mary.
Classifications of subordinate clauses
By structural type Finite clause
Nonfinite clause
Infinitive with to -ing participle
Infinitive without to -ed participle
Without S: Covered in snow, he looked like a snowman.
With S: We left the room and went home, the job finished.
Classifications of subordinate clauses
By structural type Finite clause
Nonfinite clause
Verbless clause
1. Ellipsis of the verb ‘be’
- Dozens of people died in the accident, many of them children.
- Whether right or wrong, he always dominates the arguments.
Classifications of subordinate clauses
By structural type Finite clause
Nonfinite clause
Verbless clause
2. Reduction of non-finite clauses
- Too nervous to reply, he stared at the book in front of him
and dared not look up.
Classifications of subordinate clauses
By function Nominal clause
Adverbial clause
Comparative clause
Comment clause
Nominal clauses
Nominal Clauses
Finite Non-finite
that clause to-infinitive nominal clause
wh-interrogative clause nominal –ing clause
Yes - No interrogative clause bare infinitive
Nominal relative clause
Nominal clauses
Finite Nominal Clauses
that clause
- S: That you were wrong is undeniable.
- Od: I knew that I was wrong.
wh-interrogative clause
- Cs: The problem is that he refuses to
speak in court.
Yes - No interrogative clause - Appositive: The fact that he hates English
makes it hard for him to study it.
Nominal relative clause - Cadj: I’m sure that things will improve.
Nominal clauses
Finite Nominal Clauses
that clause
- Function as S, Od, Cs, Ap, Cadj,
wh-interrogative clause & Cprep (They haven’t decided on who
wins the cup.)
Yes - No interrogative clause - Leave a gap of unknown information
Nominal relative clause
Nominal clauses
Finite Nominal Clauses
that clause
- Is formed with if/ whether
wh-interrogative clause
e.g. Do you know if/ whether the teacher
has come yet?
Yes - No interrogative clause
Nominal relative clause
Nominal clauses
Finite Nominal Clauses
that clause - S: What he is pursuing is fame.
- Od: I want to see whoever in charge of
this department.
wh-interrogative clause - Oi: She gave whoever came into the store
a handful of sweets.
- Cs: University is where you train for your
Yes - No interrogative clause future career.
- Co: You can call me whatever you like.
- Ap: Tell me your nickname, that is, the
Nominal relative clause
way your friends often call you.
- Cprep: Vote for whichever candidate you
like.
Nominal clauses
Non-finite nominal clauses
to-infinitive nominal clause - S: To become an MC has always
been my dream.
- Od: John wanted her to open the door.
nominal –ing clause
- Cs: My wish is to stay here one
more week.
bare infinitive - Ap: His ambition to be a famous
writer was fulfilled.
- Cadj: I’m glad to help you.
Nominal clauses
Non-finite nominal clauses
to-infinitive nominal clause - Function as S, Od, Cs, Ap, Cprep,
& Cadj
- Genitive case in formal style
nominal –ing clause
e.g. I’m surprised at his making
that mistake.
- Objective or common case:
bare infinitive
e.g. I’m surprised at him making
that mistake.
Nominal clauses
Non-finite nominal clauses
to-infinitive nominal clause - ‘to’ is optional in case of ‘do’ proform.
E.g. All I did was (to) turn off the gas.
nominal –ing clause
- bare infinitive is obligatory when the
infinitive clause is initial
bare infinitive
E.g. Turn off the gas was all I did.
Adverbial clauses
Time Purpose
Place Result
Condition & concession Manner & Comparison
Reason or cause Proportion & Preference
Circumstance
Adverbial clauses
Time Purpose
Place Result
- after, before, until, since, when + finite clause
Condition & concession
- after, before, since, until, when(ever), whileManner
+ V-ing& Comparison
- once, until, when(ever), while + V-ed
Reason or cause Proportion
- as soon as, once, when(ever), while + Verbless clause & Preference
Circumstance
Adverbial clauses
Time Purpose
Place Result
Condition & concession Manner & Comparison
- Introduced by ‘where’/ ‘wherever’
E.g.Reason
Whenor Icause
retire, I will travel around the world.
Proportion & Preference
Where the fire had been, we saw nothing but rubble.
Circumstance
Adverbial clauses
Time Purpose
Place Result
Condition & concession Manner & Comparison
Reason or cause Proportion & Preference
- Conditional clauses state the dependence of one circumstance
on another.
Circumstance
- Introduced by if, unless, provided that, providing that…
E.g. If you’re kind to her, she will do anything for you.
Adverbial clauses
Time Purpose
Place Result
Condition & concession Manner & Comparison
Reason or clauses
- Concessive cause imply a contrast betweenProportion & Preference
two circumstances.
- Introduced by though, although, while, whereas, even if
Circumstance
E.g. Although he isn’t good-looking, people are still attracted to him
Adverbial clauses
Clauses of condition
or concession
Alternative conditional-concessive clauses
Universal conditional-concessive clauses
Adverbial clauses
Clauses of condition
Alternative conditional-concessive clauses
or concession
Combine conditional meaning with
subjunctive meaning
E.g. Whether they beat us or we beat them,
we’ll celebrate tonight.
Adverbial clauses
Clauses of condition
Universal conditional-concessive clauses
or concession
Indicate a free choice from among any
number of conditions
E.g. No matter how hard he tried, he could
never summon enough courage to tell her
the truth.
Adverbial clauses
- introduced
Timeby because, since, as Purpose
- I didn’t lend him the book because I needed it for my assignment.
Place (adjunct) Result
- They’ve lit a fire, because I can see smoke rising.
(disjunct of reason)
Condition & concession Manner & Comparison
Reason or cause Proportion & Preference
Circumstance
Adverbial clauses
Time Purpose
- express a fulfilled condition/ a relation between a premise
Place
(in the subordinate clause) and the conclusion (in theResult
main clause)
- introduced by because, since, as, & seeing that
Condition
E.g. Seeing & concession
that the weather has improved, Manner & enjoy
we shall Comparison
our game.
= The weather having improved, we shall enjoy our game.
Reason or cause Proportion & Preference
Circumstance
Adverbial clauses
Time Purpose
Place Result
- are adjuncts
-Condition
introduced&by concession
(in order) (for N) to, so as to,Manner
so that & Comparison
E.g. I tiptoed into the room so as not to wake the baby up.
Reason
He tried or
to cause
improve his English so that heProportion
could study&abroad.
Preference
- has ‘putative’ meaning (modal auxiliaries are used)
Circumstance
Adverbial clauses
Time Purpose
Place Result
- Condition & concession
are more factual than putative may containManner & Comparison
an ordinary verb form
without a modal auxiliary
Reason or cause Proportion & Preference
- introduced by so that/so (informal)
E.g. We planted many shrubs, so (that) the garden looked beautiful.
Circumstance
Adverbial clauses
Time Purpose
Place Result
Condition & concession Manner & Comparison
Reason or cause Proportion & Preference
Clauses of manner – (exactly) as, (just) as
(Just)Circumstance
as a moth is attracted by a light, (so) he was fascinated by her.
Adverbial clauses
Time Purpose
Place Result
Condition & concession Manner & Comparison
Reason or cause Proportion & Preference
Clauses of comparison – as if, as though
He looks as if he is going to faint.
Circumstance
He treated me as though I were a child (unreal)
Adverbial clauses
Clauses of proportion express a ‘proportionality’ or Purpose
Time equivalence
of tendency between two circumstances
E.g. Place Result
As he grew older, (so) his enthusiasm for the cause decreased.
Condition & went
The more he concession
deeper into the forest, the Manner & Comparison
more scared he felt.
Reason or cause Proportion & Preference
Circumstance
Adverbial clauses
Time
Clauses of preference are introduced by rather than/Purpose
sooner than
E.g. Rather than go there by air, I’d take the train.
Place Result
Rather than sitting here complaining, we should act.
Rather than a new shirt, he bought a dictionary.
Condition & concession Manner & Comparison
Reason or cause Proportion & Preference
Circumstance
Comparative & comment clauses
Comp-element S: More people eat at KFC than any other
fastfood restaurant.
Cs: I’m healthier than most people of my age.
Od: She eats much more than me.
Oi: Santa has brought more children joy
than anybody else.
A: She works harder than my brother.
Comparative & comment clauses
Ellipsis in Comparative Clause
1. Optional ellipsis
James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed the cake.
James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed it.
James enjoyed the cake more than Susan did.
James enjoyed the cake more than Susan.
2. Obligatory ellipsis (of object)
- James enjoyed the cake more than Susan enjoyed.
+ James know more about the theatre than Susan knows.
Comparative & comment clauses
Ambiguity through ellipsis
He loves the dog more than his wife.
with ‘too’ & ‘enough’
He’s too ill to move.
Comparative & comment clauses
Comment Clauses Features
Forms
Comparative & comment clauses
Comment Clauses Features
Forms
- can be either disjuncts or conjuncts
- may occur initially, finally, or medially
- have a separate tone unit
E.g. The Smiths, as you probably know, have
been our neighbor for twenty years.
Comparative & comment clauses
Comment Clauses Features
Forms
(1) Like a main clause
At that time, I believe, he didn’t understand a thing.
Comparative & comment clauses
Comment Clauses Features
Forms
(2) Like an adverbial clause (with as)
I’m a perfectionist, as you may know.
Comparative & comment clauses
Comment Clauses Features
Forms
(3) Like a nominal relative clause as conjunct
What is more, we lost all our hope and courage.
Comparative & comment clauses
Comment Clauses Features
Forms
(4) To-infinitive clause as style disjunct
To be honest with you, I didn’t understand a thing he said.
Comparative & comment clauses
Comment Clauses Features
Forms
(5) –ing clause as style disjunct
I’m concerned, speaking as a linguist, about the language
of the young people today.
Comparative & comment clauses
Comment Clauses Features
Forms
(6) –ed clause as style disjunct
Stated bluntly, he had no chance of winning.
Subordinators
Subordinating Simple subordinators
conjunctions
Compound subordinators
Correlative subordinators
Subordinators
Subordinating Simple subordinators
conjunctions
after, though,subordinators
Compound although, as,
because, before, if, once
since, that, until, when
where, while,
Correlative etc.
subordinators
Subordinators
Subordinating Simple subordinators
conjunctions
Compound subordinators
- ending with ‘that’: in that, so that, such that …
- ending with optional ‘that’:Correlative
now (that),subordinators
provided (that),
supposing (that), seeing (that)…
- ending with ‘as’: so far as, as long as, so as (to do sth)…
- ending with ‘than’: sooner than, rather than…
- others: as if, as though, in case
Subordinators
Subordinating Simple subordinators
conjunctions
Compound subordinators
Correlative subordinators
if… then, although… yet, as… as, so… as, so… that
no sooner… than, more/ less… than, the… the, whether… or
Subordinators
Other indicators of Wh-element initial markers
subordination
Subject-operator inversion
No marker
Subordinators
Other indicators of Wh-element initial markers
subordination
Subject-operator inversion
I don’t know who knocked at the door last night.
No marker
Subordinators
Other indicators of Wh-element initial markers
subordination
Subject-operator inversion
No marker
Had it not been for your help, I would have died.
Subordinators
Other indicators of Wh-element initial markers
subordination
Subject-operator inversion
No marker
1. nominal clause
e.g. I suppose (that) you’re right.
2. comment clause
e.g. You’re right, I suppose.
