FERROUS METALS

 Metals that contain iron

 Commonly give little resistance to
corrosion
 Iron

 Best known as the metal that gave us

weapons and tools
 The primary metal of technology
 Most frequently encountered metal in daily
life
 Iron
 Our pronunciation of the word is metathetical,
"iorn" instead of "iron"
 Latin for iron is ferrum
 Found in nature as the metal only in meteorites
 An excellent and versatile material of
construction--strong, tough, easily formed and
worked, and, very importantly, cheap compared
to the alternatives
 Iron
 The fourth most plentiful element in the
earth's crust
 The second most abundant metal in the
Earth's crust (aluminum is the most
abundant metal).
 The core of the Earth is solid iron
 Alloy
 A mixture of two or more metals
 Some of the alloys of iron:
mild steel
carbon steel
stainless steel
cast iron
wrought iron , etc.
 Properties of Iron

 Shiny, bright white metal that is soft,

malleable, ductile and strong
 Usually discolored by corrosion
 Has atomic number 26
 Has atomic weight 55.85
 Properties of Iron
 Its electron configuration is Ar3d64s2
 At room temperature, iron is in the form
of ferrite, or α-iron, a body-centered cubic
structure
 The density of α-iron is 7.86 g/cc
 At 910°C it changes to γ-iron, which is
face-centered cubic and somewhat softer
 Properties of Iron
 Melts at 1535°C
 Boils at 3000°C
 The specific heat is 0.107 cal/g-K
 The thermal conductivity of Fe is 3.37
cal/s-cm-K
 Its electrical resistivity is 9.71 μΩ-cm
 Properties of Iron

 Its hardness from the Moh’s scale ranges

from 4-5 (Fluorite-Apatite)
 The crystal structure and magnetism of
iron undergo changes when it is heated.
 Iron Production
 World production of new iron is over 500 million
tons a year
 Recycled iron add other 300 million tons
 Economically workable reserves of iron ores
exceed 100 billion tons
 The main mining areas are China, Brazil,
Australia, Russia and Ukraine, with sizeable
amounts mined in the USA, Canada, Venezuela,
Sweden and India.
 Iron production
 Iron ore, one of the Philippines’ largest
mineral deposits, is not being extracted at
present
 Due to the higher cost of production,
making the local prices of iron not
competitive to world prices
 However, exploration for possible mining
sites is still being done
BRIEF HISTORY

Metallic iron in prehistoric ages

 as military weapons
 Greeks (1000 BC)
 Hittites of Anatolia (1400 BC)
 ornamental purposes
 Egypt (3000-4000 BC)
Wrought iron production (14th century )
 at first, it was produced in bowl furnace
 made by heating a mass of iron ore and charcoal

in a forge
 made by heating, hammering and shaping blooms
 this process produced almost pure iron
 later progressed to develop pig iron
Cast iron production (15th century)
 Chinese (6th century)

 Europe
 Germany, Switzerland, Scandinavia, and the
Netherlands
 for railings, balconies, banisters, and for garden
furniture and decorations
Modern steel making
 use of refined furnaces
 use of Bessemer furnace/converter
 use of minimills
In order to convert molten pig iron (crude iron) into steel with a Bessemer
furnace, air must be blown through it to burn away impurities. This
engraving of a steel factory illustrates the process developed by Sir Henry
Bessemer in 1855 and used until the 1950s.
 Blast Furnace
In order to turn crude iron ore into usable pig iron, its impurities must be removed. A
blast furnace accomplishes this by forcing extremely hot air through a mixture of ore,
coke, and limestone, called the charge. Carts called skips dump the charge into the top
of the furnace, where it filters down through bell-shaped containers called hoppers. Once
in the furnace, the charge is subjected to air blasts that may be as hot as 870° C (1,600°
F). (The furnace must be lined with a layer of firebrick, called the refractory, in order to
sustain these temperatures.) Melted metal collects in the bottom of the furnace. The
waste metal, called slag, floats on top of the molten pig iron. Both of these substances
are drained, or tapped, periodically for further processing.
 Bessemer Process of Steel Production
Molten iron is poured directly from the blast furnace into the Bessemer
converter. Compressed air is then blown in from the bottom of the
converter via tuyères (tubular openings). The air passes through the iron,
separating out the excess carbon, manganese, and silicon as slag, which
is poured off. After 12 minutes the steel is discharged from the converter.
WROUGHT IRON
 term “wrought” is the old past
tense of the verb “to work”,
Therefore, wrought iron literally
means “worked iron” from a
"bloom" of porous iron mixed
with slag and other impurities

It was on this form that the iron
was initially produced after the
iron production was established

Iron containing almost no carbon
(usually not more than 0.08%). It is a
mixture of low-carbon iron and large
amount of slag

Unique from other ferrous
materials due to its “fibers”


It became compact when
hammered which make the iron
hard and brittle and cannot be
bent as sharply as steel
 Also due to its fibers, it can be
split in the direction in which the
fibers run and when bent, the
break is very jagged
 It looks like a grain-containing
wood with “fibers” with
resemblance of rolled low-carbon
steel
 It cannot be hardened


It melts quietly without
sparking and has a peculiar
slag coating with lines that are
oily or greasy in appearance
PROPERTIES
Soft, easily forged and welded

Can be used as temporary

magnets

Not recommended for casting

Ductile, malleable and tough

Elastic

Less affected by saline water

Resists corrosion better than steel

Fibrous appearance
Melting point is about 1500 °C

Specific gravity is about 7.8

Ultimate compressive stress is

about 2000 kgf/ sq. cm (200 MPa)

Ultimate tensile strength is about

4000 kgf/cm² (400 MPa)
DEFECTS
COLDSHORT WROUGHT IRON

occurs when phosphorus is present

in excess quantity

very brittle when cold and cracks if

bent but considered good enough
for nails
REDSHORT WROUGHT IRON

occurs when sulphur is present in

excess quantity

possesses sufficient tenacity when

cold. But it cracks when be
USES
 rivets, chains, ornamental iron
work, railway couplings, water and
steam pipes, raw material for
manufacturing of steel, bolts and
nuts, horse shoe bars, handrails,
straps for timber roof trusses,
boiler tubes, roofing sheets, etc.
INGOT IRON
●
A very low- carbon iron that
has no slag
•A bar of iron that contains
small quantities of other
elements therefore considered
as iron of high purity
 • a mass of metal or
semiconducting material, heated
past its melting point and then cast
into a shape which is easy to
handle, often a bar or block
 It is manufactured under two
stages of heating : primary
milling and finishing milling;
wherein steel cast is molten in
vertical cast iron and
intentionally molded for rolling
• Used as semiconductor
devices
• Used as permanent magnet

wherein alloy ingot consists

essentially of rare earth metal
and iron and optionally boron
 Cast Iron
 Has 2-4% C, 1-6% Si, traces of sulfur,
manganese and phosphorus
 Melting point: 1420-1470 K
 Widely used in industry due to low cost
and machinability
 Types: Gray CI, White CI, Ductile CI,
Malleable CI, and Alloy CI
Gray Cast Iron
 Gray Cast Iron
 Graphite flakes in iron-carbon (usually pearlite or
ferrite) matrix
 Gray color due to type of fracturing
 Properties:
 Easily cast
 High machinability
 High thermal conductivity and corrosion resistance
 Brittle
 Low tensile strength
 Gray Cast Iron
 Can be used in cylinder heads, power
transmission lines, pipes and fittings,
machine bases
 Can also be used for cookware
 Gray Cast Iron
 Effect of components on Gray CI
- pearlite matrix: stronger gray CI
- ferrite matrix: less tensile strength
- graphite flakes: brittle gray CI, ease of casting
- silicon, aluminum: graphite formation
- manganese: pearlite formation, deactivation of
unwanted Fe3S
- chromium molybdenum, tungsten: harder and
stronger gray CI
 Gray Cast Iron
 Types of graphite flakes: give different
properties to gray CI
- Type A
- Type B
- Type C
- Type D
- Type E
 Ductile/Nodular Cast Iron
 Has spheroid or nodular graphite
 Treated with magnesium or cerium, and
ferro-silicon
 Increased tensile stress and malleability
 Used in crankshafts, automobile parts,
agricultural and industrial machinery, and
water and sewer line pipes.
Ductile Cast Iron
 Ductile Cast Iron
 Factors that affect its properties
- Graphite Structure
- Graphite Amount
- Matrix Structure
- Heat Treatments
- stress relieving, annealing, austempering
- composition
 Ductile/Nodular Cast Iron
 Types
 Pearlitic spheroidal graphite CI
 Normalized pearlitic spheroidal graphite CI
 Ferric spheroidal graphite CI
 Hardened and tempered spheroidal graphit CI
 White Cast Iron
 Composition: 2.2-2.9% carbon, 0.9-1.9%
silicon and 0.15-1.25% manganese
 results from the solidification of metastable

Fe-Fe3C system
 its white, crystalline fracture surface

 due to fracture lines at iron carbide

plates and absence of graphite
White Cast Iron:
Methods of Production

 By controlling the composition of

carbon and silicon
 By rapid cooling
 White Cast Iron: Properties

 good wear resistance

 resistance to extreme abrasive

conditions
 hard

 high tensile strength

 low compressive strength

 brittle
 White Cast Iron: Application

 in stone and glass crushing

machinery
 in production of malleable iron

and nodular iron.

 Malleable Cast Iron
 Element Composition:
Carbon 2.16-2.90%
Silicon 0.90-1.90%
Manganese 0.15-1.25%
Sulfur 0.02-0.20%
Phosphorus 0.02-0.15%
Malleable Cast Iron: Production
 formed by annealing white cast iron
within a certain composition range:
 Annealing is done by reheating
white cast iron, maintaining the
required temperature for a long time
before cooling it slowly
 In the process, carbon is freed so
that it exist as graphite but in
another form
 Malleable Cast Iron: Properties
 greater ductility
 less brittle
 higher tensile strength
 higher shock resistance
 lower carbon content as the white and
gray cast iron
Malleable Cast Iron: Application
 Preference for malleable iron is seen
mostly in production of:
 thin-section castings
 parts that are to be pierced, coined or cold
formed
 parts requiring maximum machinability
 parts that must retain good impact resistance
at low temperatures
 Malleable Cast Iron: Forms

 Whiteheart Malleable Cast Iron

 Blackheart Malleable Cast Iron

 Pearlitic Malleable Cast Iron

Whiteheart Malleable Cast Iron
section size dictates the microstructure:
 small sections: contain pearlite and temper carbon in

ferritic substrate
 large sections has three zones:

 surface zones has pure ferrite

 intermediate zone has pearlite, ferrite and temper

carbon
 core zone has pearlite, ferrite and ferric inclusions
 WMCI: Production
 produced by packing the white iron
castings in boxes together with haematite
(iron ore)
 boxes are then heated to 900C  breaks
down the cementite
 permitting carbon to exist in its free form. The
free carbon is almost completely removed by
the oxidizing effect of the haematite, resulting
to a metal with the properties of mild steel.
 Mechanical properties of
whiteheart malleable cast iron
Diameter 0.2% Elongatio
Tensile
of test proof (L0 = 3d) Hardness
Designation Strength
Piece Stress HB
N/mm² % min
mm N/mm²

W 35-04 9 - 15 340 - 360 - 5-3 230

W 38-12 9 - 15 320 - 380 170 - 210 15 - 8 200

W 40-05 9 - 15 360 - 420 200 - 230 8-4 220

W 45-07 9 - 15 400 - 480 230 - 280 10 - 4 220

 Blackheart Malleable Cast Iron
in this form, the freed carbons are not
completely removed but are dispersed
throughout the structure in nodular
form after being heated to 800C in a
neutral packing.
its microstructure is mainly ferrite
 Mechanical properties of
blackheart malleable cast iron
Diameter 0.2% Elongation
Tensile
of test proof (L0 = 3d) Hardness
Designation Strength
Piece Stress HB
N/mm² % min
mm N/mm²

B 30-06 12 – 15 300 - 6 150 max

B 32-12 12 – 15 320 190 12 150 max

B 35-10 12 - 15 350 200 10 150 max

 Pearlitic Malleable Cast Iron
 form of malleable iron of characteristic high
tensile strength which can be hardened and
tempered
achieved by adding 1% manganese to the

initial concentration or by rapid cooling after

the blackheart process.
 microstructure is mainly pearlite or other

transformation products of austenite

 Mechanical properties of
pearlitic malleable cast iron
Diameter 0.2% Elongation
Tensile
of test proof (L0 = 3d) Hardness
Designation Strength
Piece Stress HB
N/mm² % min
mm N/mm²
P 45-06 12 – 15 450 270 6 150-200
P 50-05 12 – 15 500 300 5 160-220
P 55-04 12 – 15 550 340 4 180-230
P 60-03 12 – 15 600 390 3 200-250
P 65-02 12 – 15 650 430 2 210-260
P 70-02 12 – 15 700 530 2 240-290
P 80-01 12 - 15 800 600 1 270-310
 Alloy Cast Iron

 Made due to increasing need for cast

iron types that may be used in extreme
conditions of abrasion, corrosion and
temperature
 Common elements used
in Alloy Cast Iron
 Nickel
 used to prevent chilling in thin sections and in retaining a
close structure in the thick parts of castings of widely varying
sections
 Chromium
 used for it forms carbides which is distinctive in that form of
cast iron; it also makes use of grain refining action
 Molybdenum
 strengthens the matrix by inducing the formation of fine
pearlite, but it is used preferably with other elements such as
nickel to produce acicular structures
 Types of Alloy Cast Iron
 Pearlitic
 Acicular
 Martensitic
 Austenitic
 Spheroidal graphite
 Pearlitic Cast Iron
 0.5-2% nickel (chromium up to 0,8% and
molybdenum up to 0,6%)
 used for many general castings
 a fully pearlitic matrix results from the addition of
up to 0.1%
 high carbon Ni-Cr-Mo cast iron
 nickel and chromium give the required grain

close structure while molybdenum, as mentioned

already, helps to strengthen the matrix
 Acicular Cast Iron
 composed of carbon (2.9-3.2%), nickel (1.5-2.0%),
molybdenum (0.3-0.6%); copper can replace nickel up to 1-5%
 rigid, high-strength, shock-resisting
 adding nickel (1.5-2.0%) and molybdenum (0.3-0.6%) to the
matrix can promote the formation of acicular intermediate
constituent (ferrite needles) that has high mechanical
properties
 very much tougher than any of the pearlitic cast irons of lower
strength
 structure changes rapidly at 600-750°C; not advisable to be
used at temp greater than 300°C
 Martensitic Cast Iron
 composed mainly of
5-7% nickel with
other elements
 very hard irons used
for resisting abrasion
(Fig. 1), e.g. metal
working rolls.
 Austenitic Cast Iron
 non-magnetic, with 11-33% nickel but if below
20%, it is necessary to add about 6% copper or
6% manganese to maintain fully austenitic
structures (otherwise, austenite reverts back to
cementite and pearlite) e.g. Nomag irons contain
11% Ni with 6% Mn
 These have a good resistance to corrosion and
heat, e.g. Ni-Resist.
 Outstanding Characteristics of
Austenitic Cast Irons
 resistance to corrosion;
 marked resistance to heat;
 non-magnetic, with suitable compositions;
 a high electrical resistance coupled with a
low temperature coefficient of resistance;
 a high coefficient of thermal expansion;
 no change points
 Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron
 shock, heat and growth resistance and
weldability are higher than for flake
graphite iron though damping capacity is
lower
 not so section sensitive as normal iron
 Spheroidal Graphite Cast Irons
 uses a combination of cerium and
magnesium followed by ferro-silicon as an
inoculent
 reversion to flake graphite due to
magnesium loss results from remelting.
Magnesium treatment desulphurizes the
iron to below 0.02% before alloying with
the iron, but sulphur content should be
minimized to reduce cost
Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron
 can be used with a
pearlite matrix or
ferrite after a short
annealing or with an
acicular or austenitic
matrix when
properly alloyed
 ALLOY STEELS
 Steels which have a composition of alloying
elements beyond that of plain carbon steels
 Plain carbon steel composition:
0.5 % silicon
0.5-1.5 % sulfur
0.5 % phosphorus
SOME PROPERTIES
Density (1000 kg/m3): 7.85
Elastic Modulus (GPa): 190-210
Poisson’s Ratio: 0.27-0.3
Thermal Expansion (1C-6/K): 9.0-15
Thermal Conductivity (W/m-K): 24-48.6
Specific Heat (J/kg-K): 452-1499
Electrical Resistivity (10-9Ω-m): 210-1251
Tensile Strength (MPa): 758-1882
Yield Strength (MPa): 366-1793
Percent Elongation (%): 4-31
Hardness (Brinell 3000 kg): 149-627
SOME ALLOYING ELEMENTS
and their influence on properties
hardens and strengthens the ferrite
Silicon
improves steel hardness and fatigue resistance
Manganese produces a strengthening effect
produces increased resistance to oxidation at elevated temperatures
Nickel
produces high strength, ductility, and toughness.
can resist oxidation
Chromium
adds strength and hardness
Molybdenum reduces the occurrence of temper brittleness among steels
SOME ALLOYING ELEMENTS
and their influence on properties
Tungsten induces a property called red hardness
quiets molten steel
Aluminum
facilitates escape of gases
toughens and strengthens steel
Vanadium
gives high elastic and tensile strength
Cobalt improves red hardness and retention of hardness of the matrix
 Classification of Alloy Steels
LOW ALLOYS
- contain one or more alloying elements at
relatively small percentage
TYPICAL ALLOY GRADE:
0.40 % C 0.80 % Cr
0.70 % Mn 0.25 % Mo
1.85 % Ni
Classification of Alloy Steels
MEDIUM ALLOYS
- have better corrosion resistance
than stainless steels
- developed to fill the need for a
material with sulfuric acid
resistance
 Classification of Alloy Steels
HIGH ALLOYS
- contain large percentages of nickel
- has unusually high resistance to all
concentrations of hydrochloric acid at all
temperatures in the absence of oxidizing
agents
- EXAMPLES are: Hastelloy B-2, Chlorimet
2, Hastelloy C-276
 Classification of Alloy Steels
High-speed steel (HSS)
- Carbon content ranges from about
0.70-1.50 %
- very hard and wear-resistant Carbides
from carbide formers (Cr, Va, W, and
Mo)
• iron-base alloys containing Chromium

• consist of 10.5% or more Chromium (Cr) and more than 50% Iron (Fe)

• have high resistance to oxidation and corrosion

• relatively inexpensive

• low maintenance

• alloying elements added to enhance their structure and properties

are nickel, molybdenum, titanium, copper, aluminum, silicon,
niobium and nitrogen
Generally, the chromium content in stainless
steel alloys prevents it from corrosion.

The chromium reacts with oxygen to

form a tough, adherent, invisible, passive
layer of chromium oxide film on the steel
surface. If damaged mechanically or
chemically, this film heals itself as long
as it has enough oxygen.
Stainless steels have poor
corrosion resistance in low-oxygen
and poor circulation environments.

In seawater, chlorides from the salt

will attack and destroy the passive
film more quickly than it can be
repaired in a low oxygen
environment.
300 series
have austenitic, face centered cubic (fcc) crystal
structure
comprise over 70% of total stainless steel
production
Austenite is formed through the generous use of
austenitizing elements such as nickel, manganese,
and nitrogen.
effectively nonmagnetic in the annealed condition
can be hardened only by cold working

typically have reasonable cryogenic and high

temperature strength properties

chromium content is typically 16 to 26% with

less than 35% nickel

Applications: cooking utensils, food processing

equipment, exterior architecture, equipment for
the chemical industry, truck trailers, and kitchen
sinks.
the second largest class of stainless steel
chromium containing alloys with Ferritic, body
centered cubic (bcc) crystal structures
Chromium content is typically less than 30%.  
Ferromagnetic, have good ductility and
formability, but are relatively inferior to the
austenitic stainless steels in terms of high-
temperature mechanical properties. 
Toughness is limited at low temperatures
and in heavy sections. 

Applications: used in automotive trim and

exhaust systems, interior architectural trim,
and hot water tanks.
alloys of chromium and carbon that possess a
martensitic crystal structure in the hardened
condition

They are ferromagnetic, hardened by heat

treatments, and are usually less resistant to
corrosion than some other grades of
stainless steel. 
Chromium content usually does not exceed
18%, while carbon content may exceed 1.0
%.  

Application: utilized in equipment for the

chemical and oil industries and in surgical
instruments; general engineering and
aerospace.
chromium-nickel alloys

may be either austenitic or martensitic

in the annealed condition 

In most cases, they attain high strength by

precipitation hardening of the martensitic
structure.
a mixture of bcc ferrite and fcc austenite
crystal structures

Most Duplex stainless steels are intended to

contain around equal amounts of ferrite and
austenite phases in the annealed condition.
The primary alloying elements are chromium and
nickel. 
Duplex stainless steels generally have similar
corrosion resistance to austenitic alloys except
they typically have better stress corrosion
cracking resistance. 

Generally, they also have greater tensile

and yield strengths, but poorer toughness
than austenitic stainless steels.
200 series Austenitic chromium-nickel-
manganese alloys

500 series Heat resisting chromium alloys.

600 series Martensitic precipitation hardening

alloys.
Type Most common PH stainless,
630 better known as 17-4; 17%
chromium, 4% nickel.
300 series Austenitic chromium-nickel alloys
Type 301 Highly ductile, for formed
products. Also hardens
rapidly during mechanical
working. Good weldability.
Better wear resistance and
fatigue strength than 304.
Type 302 Same corrosion resistance as
304, with slightly higher
strength due to additional
carbon.
Type 303 Easier machining version of
304 via addition of sulfur and
phosphorus.
Type 304 The most common grade
accounting for more than half of
the stainless steel produced in
the world; the classic 18/8
stainless steel. This grade
withstands ordinary corrosion in
architecture, is durable in typical
food processing environments,
and resists most chemicals. This
type is available in virtually all
product forms and finishes.
Type 309 Better temperature resistance
than 304.
Type 316 The second most common grade
containing 2%-3% molybdenum;
for food and surgical stainless
steel uses; alloy addition of
molybdenum prevents specific
forms of corrosion. Also known
as “marine grade” stainless steel
due to its increased resistance to
chloride corrosion compared to
type 304. Most watches that are
made of stainless steel are made
of this grade. 18/10 stainless
often corresponds to this grade.
Type 321 Similar to 304 but lower risk of
weld decay due to addition of
titanium.
400 Ferritic and martensitic chromium alloys
series
Type Heat resistant, poor corrosion
408 resistance; 11% chromium, 8%
nickel.
Type Cheapest type since it has the
409 lowest chromium content; used for
automobile exhausts; ferritic
(iron/chromium only); suitable for
high temperatures.
Type Martensitic (high strength
410 iron/chromium). Wear resistant,
but less corrosion resistant. It is a
low-cost, heat treatable grade
suitable for non-severe corrosion
Type Easy to machine due to additional
416 sulfur.
Type “cutlery grade” martensitic; also
420 known as “surgical steel”; excellent
polishability
Type Decorative; ferritic. Good
430 formability, but with reduced
temperature and corrosion
resistance.
Type A higher grade of cutlery steel, with
440 more carbon in it, which allows for
much better edge retention when
the steel is heat treated properly.
Also known as “razor blade steel”.
High Strength Low-
Alloy (HSLA)
 Newest of the five chief families of
steels
 Cost less than the regular alloy steels

 Not considered to be alloy steels

 HSLA alloys are much stronger and

tougher than ordinary plain-carbon

steels
 HSLA steels or plate have low carbon

content (0.05 to 0.25% C)

 Characteristics

 High toughness
 High yield strength

 Good formability

 Good weldability and

 Atmospheric corrosion resistance

 Categories of HSLA
 Dual-phase steels

- have microstructure of
martensite dispersed in a ferric matrix
- provide a good combination of
ductility and high tensile strength
 Weathering steels

- contains small amounts of

alloying elements (copper and
phosphorus)
- improved atmospheric corrosion
resistance and solid-solution
strengthening
- designed primarily to be used in
unpainted applications
 Microalloyed ferrite-pearlite steels

- contain very small add’n of

strong carbide or carbonitride forming
elements for precipitation
strengthening, grain refinement, and
transformation temperature control
 As-rolled pearlitic steels

- may include carbon-manganese

steels but may also have small add’n
of other alloying elements
 Inclusion-shape-controlled steels

- provide improved ductility and

through-thickness toughness
 Acicular ferrite (low-carbon bainite)
steel
- low-carbon steels with an
excellent combination of high yield
strengths, weldability, formability and
good toughness
 Applications
 oil and gas pipelines
 heavy-duty highway and off-road

vehicles
 construction and farm machinery

 industrial equipment

 storage tanks

 mine and railroad cars

 barges and dredges

 Snowmobiles
 lawn mowers

 passenger car components

 Bridges

 offshore structures

 power transmission towers

 light poles

 building beams and panels

 Carbon Steel

Plain-carbon steel is metal alloy, a

combination of iron and carbon, where
other elements are present in quantities
too small to affect the properties.
According to the American Iron and
Steel Institute (AISI)
Element Max. Wt. %

C 1.00

Mn 1.65

Si 0.60

Cu 0.60
Classification of Carbon Steel
(According to various deoxidation practices)

 Rimmed
 Capped
 Semi-killed
 Killed
Subdivisions of Carbon Steel

 Low Carbon Steels – “mild” steels

 Medium Carbon Steels
 High Carbon Steels
 Low Carbon Steels
 Approximately 0.05% to 0.26% carbon
content with up to 0.4% manganese content

 Less strong but cheap and easy to shape

 Surface hardness can be increased through
carburizing

 Example: AISI 1018 steel

Microscopic View of
Low Carbon Steel
 Two main types of Mild Steel
 Black Mild Steel – has dark blue oily surface
 e.g. cast steel
 Bright Mild Steel – has a silvery grey surface
 e.g. silver steel

 Applications:
 Pipes
 Gears
 Shafts
 Bolts
 Medium Carbon Steel
 Approximately 0.29% to 0.54% carbon
content with 0.60 to 1.65% manganese
content

 Balances ductility and strength and has

good wear resistance

 Example: AISI 1040 steel

 Microscopic View of
Medium Carbon Steel
 Applications:

 Boilers
 Connecting rods
 garden tools, springs
 High Carbon Steel
 Approximately 0.55% to 0.95% carbon
content with 0.30 to 0.90% manganese
content

 About 0.8% C by weight alloyed with iron

 Dark grey in color and similar to other

steels.
Microscopic View of
High Carbon Steel
 Applications:

 Milling Cutlers
 Railway materials
 Chisels
 High Strength wire
 Advantages of Low, Medium, and
High Carbon Steels
Low Carbon Medium Carbon High Carbon
Good formability Fair Formability Fair Formability
Good Weldability Fair Toughness High toughness

Lowest cost Balanced High wear

55-60% Ductility and resistance

Machinibility strength
60-70%

Machinibility
 Disadvantages of
Lowand High Carbon Steels

Low Carbon High Carbon

Less strong Low weldability

More brittle
 Heat Treatment
 The purpose of heat treating plain-carbon
steel is to change the mechanical
properties of steel, usually ductility,
hardness, yield strength, and impact
resistance. In doing so, the electrical and
thermal conductivity are slightly altered
but the modulus of elasticity is never
affected.
Types of heat treatment process
 Spheroidizing
 Full annealing
 Process annealing
 Normalizing
 Quenching
 Quenching and Tempering
Tool and Die Steel
 Tool and Die Steel
 metallurgically "clean" high-alloy steels
 contains high amounts of carbon and
excess carbides
 has extra strength, hardness, and
resistance to wear at high temperatures
 that are melted in relatively small heats in
electric furnaces and produced with
careful attention to homogeneity
 used to reduce size or weight, or to resist
wear or high-temperature shock
 PROPERTIES
Density (1000 kg/m3) 7.72-8.0
Elastic Modulus (GPa) 190-210
Poisson's Ratio 0.27-0.3
Thermal Expansion (10-6/K) 9.4-15.1
Thermal Conductivity (W/m-K) 19.9-48.3
Tensile Strength (MPa) 640-200
Yield Strength (MPa) 380-440
Percent Elongation (%) 5-25
Hardness (Brinell 3000kg) 210-620
(American Iron and Steel Institute) AISI
Nomenclature
 A special system for designating tools and
dies steels
 grouped according to alloy composition,
hardenability (mechanical similarities)
 Each group designated by a letter,
followed by numerals for specific tools
steel
Code Designation
W Water-hardening tool steel
S Shock-resisting tool steel
O Cold-work tool steel, oil hardening
A Cold-work tool steel, medium-alloy, air-hardening
D Cold-work tool steel, high carbon, chromium
H1-19 Hot-work tool steel, chromium types
H20-39 Hot-work tool steel, tungsten types
H40-59 Hot-work tool steel, molybdenum types
M High-speed tool steel, molybdenum types
T High-speed tool steel, tungsten types
L Special-purpose tool steel, low alloy types
F Special-purpose tool steel, carbon-tungsten types
P1-19 Mold steel, low carbon types
P20-39 Mold steel, other types
 TOOLS and DIE STEELS CLASSIFICATION

 Water-hardening (W series)
 Shock-resisting (S series)

 Cold-work (O, A and D series)

 Hot-work (H series)

 High-speed (M series)

 Special-purpose (L and F series)

 Mold steel (P series)

 Water-hardening tool steel (W
series)
 0.6–1.4% C
 carbon content reliance for properties

 shallow, medium, or deep hardening

 applications: chisels and drills

 Shock Resisting tool steels
(S types)
 0.5% C, small amounts of alloying elements
 toughest among the tool types
 not as wear resistant as many other tool steels
 resists sudden and repeated loadings
 applications: header dies, shear blades, bolts,
punches, screw driver blades, pipe cutters
Cold-Work Steels
 more costly
 can be quenched less drastically than water-
hardening types
 high resistance to wear and cracking
 Applications:
 stamping, blanking, pressing and forming

 brick mold liners,fuel-injector nozzles

 Cold-Work Steels Types
 Oil-Hardening tool steels (O series)
 Air-Hardening tool steels (A series)
 High carbon, chromium tool steels (D
series)
 Oil-Hardening tool steels
(O series)

 composed of 0.9–1.5% C, 0.5–1% W,

Cr and M
 have high hardness

 Applications: shear blades

 Air-Hardening tool steels
(A series)
 composed of 1–2% C and larger
amounts of Cr, Mn, Mo, V or Ni
 has high hardenability
 specified for thin parts
 with severe changes in cross section

 prone to crack or distortion during hardening

 should not be specified for use at elevated

temperatures
 Application: Punches
 High Carbon, Chromium tool steels
(D series)

 composed of 1.5–2.3% C and

12% Cr
 wear resistant

 used for high temperature

processes
 Hot-Work Steels (H series)
 designed for use at elevated temperatures.
 has high hot wear resistance
 very good high temperature properties
 high resistance to thermal fatigue and
cracking
 very good thermal conductivity.
 Applications: forging, piercing, bending,
calibration, extraction, hot-forming, roll
forging, and precision die casting
 High Speed Steels (HSS)
 composed of 0.75–1.5% C, 12–19% W, are the
most highly alloyed tool and die steels
 make good high-speed and heavy cutting tools
 red hardness: resist softening and maintain a sharp
cutting edge at high service temperatures
 used for steady, high-load conditions rather than
shock loads
 Applications: pump vanes and parts for heavy-duty
strapping machinery, manufacture of various
cutting tools (drills, taps, milling cutters, tool bits,
gear cutters, saw blades)
 HSS types
 Tungsten type (T series)
 Molybdenum type (M series)
 contains up about 10% molybdenum
 with chromium, vanadium, tungsten, and
cobalt as other alloying elements
 have higher abrasion resistance than the T
series
 undergo less torsion in heat treatment
 less expensive
 coated with titanium nitride and titanium
carbide for better wear resistance
 Special-Purpose tool steels
(L and F series)
 1.1–1.4% C, 4% W, 0.7–1.5% Cr, 0.3% V
 used for boring cylinders and expanding tubes
 Types:
 low-cost low-alloy steels (Type L)

 specified for machine parts when wear

resistance combined with toughness is important

 Carbon-tungsten alloys (Type F)

 shallow hardening and wear resistant

 not suited for high temperatures or for shock

service