Reservoir Design and Operation

Course Outlines
 Classification of reservoir, Purpose of reservoir operation, Single vs. multi-purpose, Type
of hydrological data required for reservoir operation & design,

 Methods to determine water availability for reservoir design/operation project, Direct

observation method, rainfall-runoff series method etc.,

 Methods to determine capacity of reservoir, e.g. Ripple mass curve method, Pump
storage and its design & operation.

 Introduction to reservoir operation using system analysis techniques. Conjunctive use of

reservoir, Flood control procedure by reservoir operation. Flood routing through a
reservoir,

 Introduction to computer methods for reservoir operation and design, General discussion
on the available, widely used, computer models for reservoir operation and design.

 Reservoir sedimentation, Sediment sluicing/management.

Assessment Criteria
 Theory 100 Marks
– End Semester Exam 50 Marks
– Mid Semester Exam 30 Marks
– Quizzes 20 Marks

 Practical 100 Marks

– Project/Presentation 40 Marks
– Assignments 30 Marks
– Class Performance 10 Marks
– Viva 20 Marks
Reservoir
 
- Collection of water behind a dam or barrier for use during flow period.

For
- Irrigation,
- Hydropower generation,
- Water supply, domestic, municipal or industrial use;
- Flood mitigation;
- Navigation;
- Silt control;
- Recreation etc.
 
 During a specified time interval,
 
S (supply) < D (demand) :
 
 Need for “water storage”
Consumptive Uses
 Irrigation uses
 Domestic and municipal uses
 Industrial uses
 Wildlife and stock uses

Non-consumptive Uses
 Power development uses
 Flood control uses
 Recreation uses
 Streamflow regulation
 
 
Classification of the Reservoirs

1. Storage reservoir
2. Flood control reservoir
2.1. Detention Reservoir
2.2. Retarding Basins

3. Multi-purpose reservoir
4. Distribution reservoir
1. Storage Reservoir
A reservoir impounding water for useful purposes, such as irrigation,
power generation, recreation, domestic, industrial and municipal supply
etc.
2. Flood Control Reservoir
Stores a portion of the flood flows in such a way as to minimize the flood
peaks at the area to be protected downstream.

2.1. Detention Reservoir

Those flood control reservoirs having controlled regulations of water i.e.
spillway is equipped with gates, valves and sluiceways.
2.2. Retarding Basins
Flood control reservoir with un-controlled spillways.
3. Multi-purpose Reservoir
Planned and constructed to serve not only one purpose, but various
purposes together is called a multi-purpose reservoir.

4. Distribution Reservoir
A reservoir connected with distribution system a water supply project,
used primarily to care for fluctuations in demand which occur over short
periods
Total reservoir storage components

 Minimum Pool level (MPL)

 Normal Pool Level (NPL)
 NPL Flood
 Design flood level (DFL)/Full reservoir level (FRL)
 Bank Storage
 Valley Storage
 Catchment yield
 Reservoir Yield
 Firm Yield/Safe Yield
 Secondary Yield
Reservoir Yield

Yield: the amount of water that reservoir can deliver in a prescribed

interval of time.

 Depends on inflow
 Its relationship with capacity is important in design
& operation of a storage reservoir.
 
Firm (safe) yield: the amount of water that can be supplied
during a critical period.

 Period of lowest natural flow

 Never been determined by certainty…
Target yield: specified for a reservoir based on the
estimated demands.
 
 The problem is to provide sufficient reservoir capacity with a
risk of meeting the target.
 

Secondary yield: water available in excess of firm yield

during high flow periods

Average Yield: Arithmetic average of firm + secondary yield over a

long period of time.

Dependable Yield: the yield that can be guaranteed with certain

probability so that the design demand flows will be
met and fully satisfied for p% of the years.
Physical Characteristics of Reservoirs
 

 Primary function is to store

 Most important characteristic: “storage capacity”

 Datum=1410
Ele (datum) Elevation (ft) Area (Ft2) Area (Acres) capacity (AF) Acc. Capacity
1410 0 0 0 0 0
1415 5 1950 0.04 0 0
1420 10 25130 0.58 2 2
1425 15 59424 1.36 5 7
1430 20 97261 2.23 9 16
1435 25 147633 3.39 14 30
1440 30 195353 4.48 20 49
1445 35 283905 6.52 28 77
1450 40 401021 9.21 39 116
1455 45 476174 10.93 50 166
1460 50 543028 12.47 58 225
1465 55 589313 13.53 65 290
1470 60 659065 15.13 72 362
1475 65 764581 17.55 82 443
1480 70 834052 19.15 92 535
1485 75 895093 20.55 99 634
1490 80 959898 22.04 106 741
1495 85 1040452 23.89 115 855
1500 90 1110870 25.50 123 979
1505 95 1173392 26.94 131 1110
1510 100 1246710 28.62 139 1249
1515 105 1324295 30.40 148 1397
1520 110 1424141 32.69 158 1554
1525 115 1534295 35.22 170 1724
 BARWASA DAM PROJECT
Area-Elevation-Capacity-Curves
Capacity (Acre-ft)
0 225 450 675 900 1125 1350 1575 1800
1530

1510

Elevation (ft)
Elevation (ft)

1490

1470

1450

Reservoir Capacity
1430 Reservoir Surface
Area

1410
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Area (Acre)

.Figure 4.12: Area- Elevation-Capacity Curves

 Site selection criteria for the reservoir
1) Catchment should have such geological condition that minimum
percolation losses occur so that maximum runoff could be available at
reservoir site.
2) Lateral streams carrying high sediment load should be avoided or
economic sediment control measures should be adopted to increase the
reservoir life
3) Reservoir site should consist of impermeable rocks, so that the bed losses
can be avoided.
4) Cost of real-estate submerged in reservoir should be as minimum as
possible
5) Reservoir site should favor the deep reservoir as compared to shallow one.
• Less evaporation
• Less area submerged (real-estate)
6) Reservoir site should not contain objectionable minerals and soluble rocks.
7) Suitable dam site should be available
• Foundation conditions at dam site
• Economy in dam construction
 Foundation Conditions of Reservoir at Dam site
1) Solid rock foundation
 Strong bearing capacity and high resistance to erosion and percolation
 Suitable for almost every kind of dam type
2) Course and sand gravel foundations
 Cannot bear the weight of high concrete gravity dams
 Suitable for earthen and rock-fill dams
 Due to high permeability suitable cutoffs must be provided to avoid
undermining
3) Silt and sand foundation
 Suitable for earthen dams
 Protection of foundation at d/s toe from erosion must be ensured
4) Clay foundation
 5) Non unCause excessive settlement
 Not suitable for concrete and rockfill dams
 Maybe suitable for earthen dams
iform foundation

6) Economy in dam construction

Investigations for Reservoir Planning
1) Preliminary Investigations/Reconnaissance
 Collection of sufficient precise data
 Cost estimates to select the economical option
 Topographic maps of the area
 Hydrological investigations
 Geographical investigations / maps

2) Final Investigations
 Engineering survey
 Detail geological investigations
 Detail hydrological investigations
Engineering Survey / Topographical Survey

 Area-Storage-Elevation Curve

 Prismoidal formula
 Integration technique for computing capacity
Prismoidal Formula
Integration Technique
Integration Area-Elevation curve will yield in Storage-Elevation
curve
Example
A contour survey of a reservoir site gives the following data:

The capacity of the reservoir upto 200 m elevations is found to be

14.1 ha.m. Determine the general equation for the area-elevation
curve and capacity-elevation curve. Also determine the reservoir
capacity at RL 2225m.
Geological Investigations
Objectives:
Geological investigation of the reservoir site is required for safety and losses of the dam. Following
are the objectives of geological investigations
 
 Water tightness of reservoir basins
 Suitability of dam foundation
 Geological features such as folds and faults
 Type and depth of over-burden
 Location of permeable and soluble rocks, if any
 Location of quarry sites (Quarry sites are site from where material for the dam
should be brought).
 
Folds: a geological fold occurs when one or a stack of originally flat and planar surfaces,
such as sedimentary strata, are bent or curved as a result of permanent deformation.
 
Fault: A geological fault is a planar fracture or discontinuity in a volume of rock, across
which there has been significant displacement along the fractures as a result of earth
movement.
 
1. Fault where the relative movement on the fault plane is approximately vertical is known as a dip-slip
fault.
2. Fault where slip is approximately horizontal, the fault is known as a transcurrent or strike-slip fault.
3. An oblique-slip fault has non-zero components of both strike and dip-slip
Over-burden: Over-burden is the material that lies above an area of economic or
scientific interest. Overburden is also used to describe the soil and other material that lies
above a specific geological feature
 
Tools for geological maps
1. Surface investigations
2. Sub-surface investigations

Surface Investigations
 Features directly observable are evaluated.

 The rock and loose fill material features obtained from study of exposed surface, rocky
outcrops (visible exposure of bedrock), vertical cuts along streams

 Loose fill material is noted as to grain size, size gradation, shape and type of fill in
terms of quantity, quality, volume, depth, areal extent etc.
 
NOTE: The special requirement for the geology of reservoir site is that there should be no
danger of serious leakage when ground is under pressure due to full head in the reservoir.
 
Subsurface Investigations
 
Excavation of Open Pit
 To study the nature of overburden, test pits are generally required of size 1.25m×1.25m
 
Drifting
 In order to have a thorough idea of the formation of foundation or abutments, holes
usually of 1.5m×1.5m are made in rocks.
 
Core Drilling
 This technique is used to study the nature of rock at sufficient depth below. Generally,
three holes, 25-30m apart in two directions, and at right angle to each other are
sufficient to find the configuration of strata.
 
Adits / Tunnels
 This is a horizontal opening made to explore area under slope abutments. Adits section
is 1.5m×2.2m of rectangular are enough to permit movement of person and test
equipment.

 Audit construction is slow and expensive activity. However, this show exact rock
features with true orientation.
Investigation for Reservoir Site selection
 The most important factor influencing feasibility of
proposed reservoir site is generally the location of the
dam.

 After that,
 run-off characteristics of the catchment area,
 water tightness of the proposed reservoir basin,
 stability of the valley sides,
 rate of sedimentation,
 quality of the water, and
 seismic activity
Topography:
 The area should be a wide natural valley preferably ending in a
narrow gorge where a barrier (dam) could be placed.

 Initial estimates of storage capacity can be made from

topographic maps or aerial photographs, more accurate
information being obtained, where necessary, from
subsequent surveying.

 Catchment areas and drainage densities can also be

determined from maps and air photos.

 Reservoir volume can be estimated by planimetering areas

upstream of the dam site for successive contours up to
proposed top water level.
Groundwater condition
• Amount of leakage of water from the reservoir is
controlled by the depth of watertable.

• If the watertable is near the ground surface, the water

level in reservoir doesn't rise above it, no serious loss by
leakage will occur.

• On the other hand if watertable lies deep below the

ground surface, the watertable lies deep below the
ground surface, the water level in the reservoir will stand
above it and leakage will occur, the amount of which will
depend on the permeability of the earth material it rests
upon.
Permeability:
• During geological investigation, it is necessary to
locate the highly permeable layers present in the
reservoir area.

• The rocks highly fissured, intensely jointed, faulted or

have solution channels cause serious leakage from the
reservoir

• In some cases, ancient channels buried below the

present valley floor, called buried valleys often provide
passage for profuse leakage of reservoir water.
Highly Fissured Rock Highly Fissured Rock

Jointed Rock Jointed Rock

Sedimentation in Reservoir:
• The amount of silt produced and supplied to the rivers depends
upon the lithological character and topography of the catchment
area.

• The rivers flowing over the soft rocks and high gradient areas carry
greater amount of silt and consequently, reservoirs may silt up very
soon and causes significant reductions in water storage capacity.

• Therefore, Silt traps may be constructed upstream in such rivers to

prevent siltation on reservoirs.

• In those areas where streams carry heavy sediment loads, the rates
of sedimentation must be estimated accurately in order that the
useful life of any proposed reservoir may be determined.
Geology:
• The rocks exposed in the reservoir rim must be resistant
to solution, erosion and free of voids to stop leakage.
• If some potential leakage zones are present, they
should be delineated as they may serious effect the
efficiency of reservoir.
• Highly jointed rocks should be investigated for joint
intensity and spacing which will help in assessing the
grouting.
• Faults if present should be delineated since they require
treatment which may be expensive.
• Faults may result in a passageway for water leakage as
well as vulnerable or liable for earthquake effect.
 Movement on fault may initiate due to weight of water
in the reservoir.

 Presence of weakened rock mass or soil in the rim of

the reservoir may be the cause of slumps or landslides
into the reservoir.

 The load of the structures, i.e., dead and live loads are
transmitted to the foundation vertically.

 Besides dead and live load, lateral forces are also

acting on the structure mostly by wind and
earthquake.
• The primary considerations for foundation support are bearing capacity,
settlement, and ground movement beneath the foundations.

• When bedrock is near the surface, it provides excellent supporting

foundation material.

• Discontinuous, weathered and fragile rocks should be removed or treated

properly before laying foundation.

• Fine grained sedimentary rock has higher shear strength than coarse
grained rocks, whereas, finer material like clay and silt have lesser
compressive strength than coarser material such as gravel and coarser sand.

• The ultimate bearing capacity of the supporting soil should be calculated so

that to design the foundation care should be taken that the unit load at the
base of a spread footing should not be larger than the safe bearing capacity
of the supporting soil.
• Settlement can present a problem in clayey soils, so that the
amount that is likely to take place when they are loaded needs to
be determined.

• The commonly accepted basis of design is that the total settlement

of a footing should be restricted to about 25 mm.

• During excavation for foundation, care should be taken about the

stability of the excavation walls.

• High groundwater table may cause problem and the foundation

structures should be made water proof.

• Measures should be taken against possible damage of the structure

by hydrostatic uplift which may lift the floor slabs and crack walls.
Rock Formations in Pakistan
Massive limestone rock with many discontinuities (M-2 Salt range). Also
see are blast drill hole marks.
Shale formation cut slopes affected by weathering and
erosion (M-2 Salt range).
Massive limestone and sandstone inter bedding
(M-2 Salt range)
Shale and sandstone inter bedding (M-2 Salt range).
Shale and sandstone inter bedding (M-2 Salt range)
Fractured sandstone bedding (M-2 Salt range)
Massive limestone rock on
abutments of Dharabi dam
(Dist. Chakwal)
Rock features along Mastuj River (a Try of Chitral R).
Rock fracturing Golen Gol, Chitral
A large rock boulder with visible lava eruption/fill; Golen Gol, Chitral.
Sandstone and shale layers exposed at Tanpura-I dam, Dist Jhelum.
Fractured rock cut at Simly dam left abutment
Shale and sandstone layering at right abutment of emergency spillway,
Mangla dam raising project.
Tanpura-I dam: Fractured friable sandstone layers over shale
ROCK RESHAPING
Disintegration and Decomposition of rocks
• Rocks are subjected to many physical and chemical processes
• Most changes result in reduction in size and consequently their strength.
• Rocks are subject to weathering an account of exposure to environment
• The rate of weathering depend on rock composition the climate, extent of contact
of surface solutions into deep locations (along fractures) warm and hot regions has
greatest weathering.
• Physical weathering produces soil and gravel, which are finally eroded by water,
wind, and glaciers.
• Chemical weathering results in clay minerals.
• Rock masses also break on cooling and shrinking which also causes deep fractures
and joints.
• Rocks become folded etc. due to seismic thrusts, lava eruption and earthquake
reasons. These features weaken the rock mass.
• Some depth of loose materials or alluvium may also cover rock surface and is
termed as overburden.
Fractures in rocks
Discontinuity:
 A collective term used for all structural breaks in geologic materials which
usually have zero to low tensile strength. Discontinuities comprise fractures
(including joints), planes of weakness, shears/faults, and shear/fault zones.
 Depositional or erosional contacts between various geologic units may be
considered discontinuities.

Bedding planes:
 The planes marking the termination of one sedimentary deposit and the
beginning of another; they usually constitute a weakness along which the
rock tends to break.

Foliation:
 In rocks that have been subjected to heat and deforming pressures during
regional metamorphism, some new materials may be formed by
recrystallisation.
 Fractures are discontinues/breaks in geologic materials
resulting from failure of rock under stress (tensional,
compressional or shear)

 Joint is a crack which transects a rock with little or slight

displacement of adjacent sides parallel to the plane but a
slight separation normal to the joint surface. A series of
joints with similar orientation forms a joint set

 Shear: A structural break with differential movement

occurred along a surface or zone of failure.

 Fault: fractures along which there has been notable

displacement of one side of fracture relative to other.
 Shear/fault zone: A band of parallel or subparallel fault or shear
planes. The zone may consist of gouge, breccia, or many fault or
shear planes with fractured and crushed rock between the shears or
faults, or any combination.

 Stirke of fault is compass bearing of a horizontal line in the plane of

fault.

 Dip: is inclination of fault from the horizontal (measured at right

angle to strike).

• Gouge is the mix having large proportion of grains of clay size or

slightly larger.

• Crush breccia contain angular rock fragments usually embed in

gouge.
Weathering:
Weathering considerably alters the properties of rocks. Weathering is caused
by weather, water, chemical and physical processes Weathering is classed as
under
Rock Classification
Tunnels are excavated through the rock matrix of abutments. The following terms are used
for the classification of rocks for tunneling purposes:

•Intact rock contains neither joints nor hairline cracks. If it breaks, it breaks across sound
rock.

•Stratified rock consists of individual strata with little or no resistance against separation
along the boundaries between strata. The strata may or may not be weakened by
transverse joints.

•Moderately jointed rock contains joints and hairline cracks, but the blocks between joints
are locally interlocked together so that vertical walls do not require lateral support.

•Blocky and seamy rock consists of chemically intact rock fragments which are entirely
separated from each other and imperfectly interlocked. In such rock, vertical walls may
require support.

•Crushed but chemically intact rock has the character of a crusher run. If most or all of the
fragments are as small as fine sand and no recementation has taken place.