Unit 403 The structure, organisation and function of the

human body

GLH: 80hrs
In this unit, each of the human body systems are looked at and then considered as an organised group
that requires stability and balance. Each system is examined in terms of its cellular structure, function
and its interaction with the other systems of the body.
This will enable learners to understand the functions of the human body as a whole when assessing
the impact of environmental demands and lifestyle choices on health, well-being and healthy ageing.
Session 1: Cells, Tissues and Organisation of the Human Body.
 Assessment for this unit

 This unit is externally set by City and Guilds

 The assessment process consists of:
 A Short-answer Question Paper for criteria 1.1; 1.2; 2.1; 2.2
 A written case study for criteria 1.3; 1.4; 2.3; 2.4; 2.5

 To pass the short answer test you need to get 50% or above.
 To pass the case study you need to ensure you meet all the criteria for this in the discussion
of the case selected. This will be a reflection on a patient with a condition where you will
review the relevant anatomy and physiology related to this condition and then the care
providing rationale for this.
 Please ensure you discuss your plan for the case study with your assessor and draft a plan
to ensure you are working with a condition that will enable you to meet the criteria.
 Learning outcomes for today
 The learner will:
 LO1: Understand the organisation of the human living cell, from its simplest level to
the most complex level found in the human body.

 Assessment criteria:
 1.1 Explain the structure and function of single and complex cells
 1.2 Outline the term ‘system’ in relation to the human body
 1.3 Explain the relationship between cells and systems
 1.4 Analyse the effects of inheritance in relation to the human body function
 Activity 1

 Read through slides 5,6 , 7, 8 and 9 making notes for yourself to use as revision.
 Then consider the questions on slides 10 and 11; Kirstin will ask you to each post the answer to one of
these on the forum.
 Cells and the human body

 Simple cells: cells are the smallest functional units in the body.

 Complex cells: these are groups of cells that together form tissues with specialised
functions in different parts of the body.

 Different tissues are then grouped together to form organs.

 Organs are grouped together to form systems each of which performs a particular
function that maintains homeostasis and contributes to health of individuals.
 Cells

 The human body starts from a single cell called the zygote following fusion between an
ovum (female sex cell) and the spermatozoon (male sex cell).
 Cell divides and the foetus develops with the same genetic makeup as the zygote.
Cell structure in context:
 Cells are contained within a plasma membrane which hold a number of organelles (small
organs) in the fluid called cytosol within the cytoplasm.
 Plasma membrane consists of 2 layers phospholipids with proteins and sugars embedded
in them. The differences in the 2 layers influence the transfer of substances in and out of the
cells.
 Organelles have highly specialised functions and are often enclosed in their own
membranes within the cytosol.
 The cytoplasm is the area between the nucleus and the plasma membrane which is host
to the cytosol and organelles.
 Plasma membrane and membrane proteins

 The plasma membrane separates the cell contents from it’s external environment in the
human body.
 It has phospholipids molecules which have a water loving and a water hating function.
 The head of the phospholipids are electrically charged and are hydrophilic (likes water)
 The tail of the phospholipids has no charge and is hydrophobic (dislikes water)
 The lipid cholesterol is also present in the plasma membrane.
 Lipids are hydrophobic so have an inability to mix with water.
 The proteins in the phospholipids provide: immunological identity, act as receptors for
hormones and chemical messengers, some are enzymes, allow transfer of some ions across
the membrane.
 Organelles

 Nucleus is the largest organelle. The only cells without a nucleus are mature erythrocytes
(red blood cells). The body of the nucleus holds the genetic material in the form of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which directs all metabolic activities. Ribonucleic acid
(RNA) is also found in the nucleus which is involved in protein synthesis.
 In a non dividing cell DNA is called chromatin, otherwise this is called chromosomes.
Within the nucleus is the nucleolus which is involved in the synthesis and assembly of the
components of ribosomes another organelle.
 Mitochondria are sausage shaped structures sometimes described as the powerhouse of the
cell. They are central to aerobic respiration making chemical energy available in the cell.
The most active cell types have the greatest number of mitochondria e.g. liver, muscle and
spermatozoa. They are generators of the cell.
 Ribosomes make proteins for use in the cell which include enzymes required for
metabolism. They also manufacture proteins for exporting from the cell. These look like
tiny granules and are composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and protein.
 Centrioles consisting of 9 groups of microtubules assisting the process of meiosis and
mitosis
 Organelles

 Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) this works as interconnecting membranous canals which
help to synthesise and transport lipids and proteins and hormones.
 Rough Endoplasmic reticulum manufactures proteins exported from cells.
 Golgi Apparatus receives proteins from the ER and package these into secretory vesicles ready to
move and fuse with the plasma membrane to release these as needed.
 Lysosomes are small membranous vesicles pinched off from the Golgi apparatus. They contain
enzymes which break down fragments of organelles (cellular waste) and large molecules (e.g. RNA,
DNA, carbohydrates, proteins). Lysosomes in white blood cells help to digest foreign material.
 Cytoskeleton is a network of tiny protein fibres:
microfilaments for structure and shape of the cell;
microtubules involved in movement of organelles within the cells and chromosomes during cell
division.
Cell extensions in some types of cells such as the small intestine and microvilli.
Centrosome directs the organisation of the microtubules.
 Revision point

 Nucleus consists of nucleolus in the centre and is surrounded by the nuclear membrane.
 Functions of these components are:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………..
 
 Surrounding the nucleus of the cell is the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the smooth
endoplasmic reticulum
 What do these do?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………….

 Mitochondria situated towards the outside of the cell structure

 What is its function:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………….
 Revision point

 Golgi apparatus:
 what is the function of this?

 …………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………

 Complete the sentence:

 Complex cells are groups of ………….. that together form …………………… in different
parts of the body. These ……………… then form ……… which then are part of the way
the body maintains ……………….. which maintains the health of individuals.
 Activity 2

 Now read through slides 13-16 on cells and transport of substances

 Then open and view the link on slide 17 and answer the following:
 What hormone is being transported?
 What type of process is this when glucose passes from the blood into the cells?
 How is this described in the film?
 The Cell Cycle

 Cells are constantly being regenerated in the body and worn out cells are replaced by the
growth and division of similar cells. This supports effective maintenance and repair in a
healthy individual.
 Cells at the end of their life are programmed to self destruct and their components are
removed by phagocytosis (Greek word meaning ‘to eat’).
 Cells with nuclei have 46 chromosomes and divide by mitosis.
 The formation of sex cells (gametes) take place by the process known as meiosis not mitosis.
 The cell cycle includes mitosis and a longer phase called interphase.
 Mitosis is a continuous process and includes the following phases:
 Prophase,
 Metaphase,
 Anaphase,
 Telophase. This leads then to 2 separate daughter cells.
 Transport of substances across membranes

 Selective Permeability: meaning that not all substance can cross the membrane.

 Passive transport: high to low concentration (downhill) through the cell membranes
without using energy.
 Diffusion: move from a higher concentration to a lower concentration through a selectively
permeable membrane.
 Facilitated diffusion: needed for some substances that cannot diffuse unaided e.g. glucose.
 Osmosis: the passive movement of water down the concentration gradient.

 Active transport: uphill movement of a substance through a living cell membrane using
chemical energy.
 Upper concentration gradient - from a lower to a higher concentration.
 The sodium-potassium pump- this is essential to maintain higher levels of potassium inside the
cells and higher sodium levels outside the cell.
Transport of substances across membranes
Active transport
 Animation on diabetes and cell activity

 [Link]

 Follow the link to open the film on diabetes and consider the cells involved in diabetes and
then try to summarise the cellular action/dysfunction on the forum. This takes 8mins to
watch.

 This helps to see homeostasis as well as the function of cells and the exchange of
substances.

 Now return to the questions on slide 12 and post your answers onto the forum.
 Then look at slide 18 and then download the next activity to do on connective tissues.
 Tissues in the body

 Epithelium tissue- this covers the body and lines cavities, hollow organs and tubes e.g.
mucous membranes and serous membranes. Types of epithelial tissues are simple or
stratified.
 Connective tissue- this is the most abundant tissue in the body and is found in all organs.
Connective tissues are more widely separated from each other compared to epithelial
tissues and intercellular substance (matrix) is present in larger amounts. There are fibres in
the matrix which form a supportive network for cells to attach to. Most types of this tissue
have an abundant blood supply. The cells in connective tissue: fibroblasts, fat cells,
macrophages, leukocytes and mast cells. These all have different functions. Types of
connective tissue are: loose , adipose, reticular and dense tissue.
 Connective tissue activity

 Match the cell with the description

 Material will be uploaded to the forum for this.
 Tissues in the body continued

 Muscle tissue:
 There are 3 types:
 Skeletal muscle, Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle.
  

 Nervous tissue:
 These have excitable cells (neurones) and non-excitable (glial cells) cells.
 Neurones initiate, receive, conduct and transmit information.
 Glial cells support the neurones.
Tissues in the body continued
 Activity on functions of complex cells

 Kirstin will upload a worksheet to guide the next activity.

 An example is provided on this for epithelial tissue but you as a group need to look at the
other 3 types of tissues and describe the functions and outline where these may be found in
the body. This will be useful for revision purposes for the controlled assessment and for
your case studies.
 Tissue regeneration

 Regeneration of tissues in the body differs between cells.

 There are 3 general categories:
 Tissue that continually regenerate as replication is constant: examples are the skin, mucous
membranes, secretory glands….
 Tissue that can replicate but do this less frequently and the process takes longer. These
include the liver which is a large and complex organ, kidneys, fibroblasts and smooth
muscle cells.
 Some cells such as neurones, skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle cannot regenerate; so
damage to these means damage is permanent and can only be replaced by fibrous tissue so
functions are lost.
 This will clearly have an impact on recovery so should be considered when looking at your
case studies.
 Membranes: epithelial, synovial, and glands

Membranes are sheets of epithelial tissue and supporting connective tissue.

 Types of epithelial membranes are:
 Mucous membrane: sometimes called mucosa; this lines body cavities that open to the
exterior of the body. Mucous which is produced keeps the area moist and lubricated. E.g.
respiratory tract.
 Serous membrane: these secrete serous watery fluid are found in the lungs (pleura), the
pericardial cavity (pericardium) and the abdomen (peritoneum). Forms the lining of the
cavity and covers the organs within the cavity. The parietal layer lines a cavity and the
visceral layer surrounds the organs.
Synovial membrane:
 These do not have an epithelial layer. These are connective tissue membranes not epithelial
membranes. They secrete synovial fluid to enable movement of the joints.
 Membranes: epithelial, synovial, and glands

Glands:
 These are groups of epithelial cells that produce specialised secretions.
 Exocrine glands excrete onto the surface of hollow organs (saliva, mucous, earwax,
digestive juices)
 Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood and lymph.
 Cells, Tissues and Systems revision point

 Tissues are a collection of cells which form a complex cell. Identify the 4 types of tissues
found in the body and explain where these may be found in the body?

 What is a system in the human body?

 What is the relationship between cells and systems?

 Inheritance

 Genetics is the study of genes:

 Offspring inherit from their parents a copy of all information needed to develop into a functioning
organism. This is carried as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) mainly within the nucleus.
 DNA is organised into functional units: Genes which are part of the bigger structure: Chromosomes.
 Collectively all the genetic material in a cell is called its genome.
 In health the human cell has 46 chromosomes which can be arranged as 23 pairs.

 Genetic basis of disease:

 Cancer is caused by mutation of cellular DNA
 Inherited disease is due to gene mutations or chromosomal abnormalities.
 Gene mutations: this may be a faulty gene being passed directly form a parent or others may have a
genetic component which is a more complex inheritance; where more than 1 gene is likely to be
involved, making the likelihood of developing a disease more possible (increased susceptibility).
 Chromosomal abnormalities are due to a fault during meiosis e.g. Downs Syndrome.
 Inherited disorders

Single gene disorders More complex inheritance

Phenylketonuria Asthma
Duchenne muscular dystrophy Cleft lip
Huntingdon disease Hypertension
Haemophilia Atheroma
Achondroplasia Some cancers (breast and gastric cancer)
Some cancers (proportion of breast, ovarian Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes
and bowel cancers) Epliepsy
Myotonic dystrophy Schizophrenia
Cystic fibrosis Neural tube defects e.g. spina bifida.
Polycystic kidney disease

Source: Ross and Wilson (2014)