Introduction to

Antennas

Dr. Bablu K. Ghosh

 What is an antenna?
• An antenna is a passive device

• Serves as transition between a transmission line and air

• . It also acts as a coupling device

• – It is a frequency selective device operate band of frequency.
• When the wire through which HF alternating current approaches one-half of a wavelength at the
frequency of transmission then most energy radiates
 Antenna

• An antenna is a device that:

– Converts RF power applied to its feed point into electromagnetic
radiation.
• The intensity of the radiation launched by the antenna is
generally not the same in all directions.

• The radiation pattern is the same whether the antenna is used

to transmit or receive signals
• The ratio of the maximum radiation by a given antenna to the
radiation of a reference in the same direction is called the
directivity:
 Antenna Overview
• Antennas can be composed of any conductive material,

• RF currents in a conductor flow only near the

conductor’s surface; thus antennas can be made from
hollow tubing, without compromising performance.

• Meshed provided that the holes in the mesh are much

smaller (a factor of 10 or more) than the wavelength at
which the antenna will be used.
 Antenna Overview
• Two common directivity measures:
– dBi – dB referenced to an isotropic (equal radiation in all directions) radiator.
– dBd – dB referenced to a half wavelength dipole (dBd= 2.5 +dBi).

• The feed point impedance of an antenna is generally complex. The real

component has two components:

– Loss resistance due to the conductivity of the antenna itself and losses caused
by other objects near the antenna (such as the ground)
– Radiation resistance, which represents the transfer of power from the
antenna into the radiated field.

• Both directivity and impedance are dependent of the frequency of the RF

 Antenna radiation
principle
Regardless of antenna type, all
involve the same basic principle
of radiation

IL=Qv A-m/sec ; where, I-time

varying current, L –length of current element, Q-
charge and V- time varying velocity of charge or
acceleration of charge
LC basic for
antenna
 What is dynamic EM?

• Accelerated electronic charge oscillates due to force of interaction

as a result generates electromagnetic wave

• This may termed as electrodynamics where both E and H fields are

available in dynamic stage with same frequency

• Either time or position variant or vice versa

11/09/21 8
 Types of antennas (composition)
• Can be divided into two groups

– Wire antennas:
• dipoles, loops, Yagi-Uda…

– Aperture antennas:
• parabolic, horns, panel, microstrip antennas,. …
 Wire antennas

Log periodic Yagi

Yagi
Wire antennas

Log periodic

Yagi-Uda with reflector

 Antenna Types
Loop Antennas

Helical Antennas
Aperture antennas

Dipole with
parabolic and
corner reflector
Spherical (main reflector)

Panel antenna
 Antenna Types
Horn Antennas

Micro strip
Antennas
Reflector and Pyramidal horn
antennas
Antenna types -An over view
 Types of Antennas(as per directivity)
Antennas used can be:
• Omni-directional-in this case radio power is transmitted
Uniformly in all directions
Such type of antenna are preferred where uniform coverage
is desired such as in cellular systems. Usually monopole antenna support it
•Bi-directional- in this type of antenna energy is radiated only two direction
only. Dipole antenna shows such type of pattern

• Directional: in case of UHF communication. Point to point communication it

is used. Usually aperture type antenna supports it.

• Highly directional: in case of microwave communications,

microwave signals are transmitted in very narrow beam. Helical or horn type
antenna supports it.

Normally 3 M Diameter Antenna at 2 GHz BW has half power

of about 3.4 degrees beam width.
Direction of alignment and how
many poles they have?
 Antenna Types
½ Wave Dipole

E:

H:

¼ Wave Monopole

E: H:
 Vertical Antennas
• A “vertical antenna” is an antenna that consists of a single
element mounted perpendicular to the Earth's surface. Most mobile
antennas are verticals.

• Verticals usually require some sort of counterpoise to work

their best
• Fixed station, a vertical may either be mounted on the ground or on a
mast, and it may also have several radials for counterpoise.
• These radials may be laid out on the ground, as in the next slide, or
mounted just underneath the vertical element, as in an elevated ground
plane.

• In a mobile installation, the metal body of the car usually

serves as the counterpoise.
 Typical Ground-Mounted Vertical

• This is a rough diagram of a ground-mounted vertical. The orange

radials you see may be laid along the top of the ground or buried just beneath the
surface. Multi-band verticals are sometimes a good compromise between price
and performance for a new ham.
 Ground Plane Antenna

• Here is a ground plane antenna – another type of vertical.

It is designed to be mounted on a mast, and it usually has three or four
radials coming from the base of the antenna.
 Vertical Antenna Design
• Many vertical antennas are designed to be equal
in length to one-quarter wavelength of the desired operating
frequency.

• For a 1/4 wave vertical:

234
• Length (feet) = -----------------
Frequency (MHz)
 Sample Problem from the Question

• For example, suppose you want to know the approximate

length, in inches, of a quarter-wavelength vertical antenna for 146 MHz.

• Using the formula in the previous slide:

234
• Length = ------ = 1.6 feet
146

• To get inches, multiply 1.6 times 12 (since there are 12

inches in a foot) to get 19.2 or about 19 inches.
 5/8 Wave Verticals
• Some vertical designs call for a 5/8 wave
rather than a 1/4 wave. The advantage of 5/8
wavelength over 1/4 wavelength vertical antennas is
that their radiation pattern concentrates energy at
lower angles.

• Radiation pattern describes the shape of the radiated

signal, and a lower radiation angle usually means
traveling a greater distance – better coverage
 Horizontal Antennas
• A “horizontal antenna” is an antenna
that is a simple dipole mounted so the
elements are parallel to the Earth's surface.
So what’s a dipole?
 Dipole Antennas
• A dipole antenna is a simple antenna
designed to work best on a single band.
• Two sections that are each approximately one-
quarter of the wavelength of that band,
• The total length is equal to about one-half
wavelength.

• The transmission line from the radio is connected to

this antenna in the middle of the two sections.
• Looks something like what you’ll see on the next
slide.
 Dipole Antenna

• This is an example of a dipole antenna. Many hams getting on HF

for the first time often start with a dipole. If you have the room for one, the dipole
is cheap and easy to build.
 More on Dipoles
• Dipoles may be mounted either
horizontally or vertically, depending on the intended
use.
• May be made from wire or metal tubing, and are
very easy for a new ham to construct.
• Wire dipoles are also fairly inexpensive and simple to
design.
• With an antenna tuner, they can also be made to
work on several bands.
• For these reasons, they are very popular with new
hams on the HF bands.
 Dipole Design
• Since dipoles are fairly easy to build, it is important to know
how to determine their total length. The formula for the length of a 1/2
wave dipole is:

468
• Length (feet) = -----------------
Frequency (MHz)

• When designing a dipole, you should choose the lowest

frequency for the band you want to work!
 Dipoles – Frequency Goes Up, Length
Goes Down
• The physical size of half-wave dipole
antenna changes with operating frequency.
• It becomes shorter as the frequency increases.

• As you might imagine, the opposite is also

true. It becomes longer as the frequency decreases.

31
 Antenna Impedance
• An antenna is “seen" by the generator as a load with impedance ZA ,
connected to the line.
ZA
Z A   Rr  RL   jX A

• The real part is the radiation resistance plus the ohmic resistance.
– Minimizing impedance differences at each interface will reduce SWR and
maximize power transfer through each part of the antenna system.
– Complex impedance, ZA , of an antenna is related to the electrical length of
the antenna at the wavelength in use.

• The impedance is adjusted at the load (see below) with an

antenna tuner, a balun, a matching transformer, matching
networks composed of inductors and capacitors, or matching
sections such as the gamma match.
 Transmitting antenna equivalent circuit
Antenna

Transmitter Transm. line Radio wave

The transmitter with the transmission line is represented by

an (Thevenin) equivalent generator
jXG jXA The antenna is represented by its input impedance
(which is frequency-dependent and is influenced by
Generator

objects nearby) as seem from the generator

RG jXA represents energy stored in electric (Ee) and magnetic
Rr (Em) near-field components; if |Ee| = |Em| then XA = 0
(antenna resonance)

Rr represents energy radiated into space (far-field

components)
VG Rl
Rl represents energy lost, i.e. transformed into heat in the
antenna structure

Thevenin equivalent
 Receiving antenna equivalent circuit
Antenna

Radio wave Transm.line Receiver

The antenna with the transmission line is

represented by an (Thevenin) equivalent
jXA generator

jXL The receiver is represented by its input

Rr
Antenna

impedance as seen from the antenna terminals

(i.e. transformed by the transmission line)
Rl RL VA is the (induced by the incident wave) voltage
at the antenna terminals determined when the
VA antenna is open circuited

Thevenin equivalent
Antenna parameters
 Outline
Antenna parameters
• Solid angle,  and Radiation intensity, U
• Radiation pattern, Pn, sidelobes, HPBW
• Far field zone, rff
• Directivity, D or Gain, G
• Antenna radiation impedance, Rrad
• Effective Area, Ae

All of these parameters are expressed in terms of a transmission

antenna, but are identically applicable to a receiving antenna.
 Spherical coordinates
=0
z (zenith)


=90
=90

 y

= azimuth x
=90
= elevation =0
 Radiation Intensity
• Is the power density per solid angle:
U ( ,  ) S ( ,  )
Pn ( ,  )   Where U is the radiation intensity
U max ( ,  ) S max ( ,  )

U  r2 Sr [W/sr]
where
S r  ½ Re {E  H*}r [W/m ]
ˆ 2 r

is the power density also

known as Poynting vector.
 Total radiated power by antenna
Radiation Pattern is defined as …
“… the variation of the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field
as a function of direction (at a distance far from the antenna).”

• Can be calculated as;

Prad   U  d [W]
Where U is the radiation intensity
or
Prad   Sr  dS [W]
 Radiation Pattern
• Radiation pattern is the 3D
Field pattern:
plot of the gain, but usually
E ( ,  )
the 2D horizontal and En ( ,  ) 
vertical cross sections of the Emax ( ,  )
radiation pattern are
considered.
Power pattern:
• Refers to the variation of S ( ,  )
the relative amplitude of Pn ( ,  )  S , Po int ing  vector
S max ( ,  )
the radiation as a function
of direction.
 Antenna Bandwidth
• The bandwidth of an antenna is the range of
frequencies over which it is effective, usually centered
around the operating or resonant frequency.

– The bandwidth of an antenna may be increased by

several techniques, including using thicker wires,
replacing wires with cages to simulate a thicker
wire, tapering antenna components, and combining
multiple antennas into a single assembly and allowing
the natural impedance to select the correct antenna.
 Bandwidth B
The Bandwidth B is defined as …
“… the range of frequencies within the
performance of the antenna, with respect to some
characteristics, conforms to a specified standard.”

Pattern Bandwidth: beamwidth, gain, etc.

Impedance Bandwidth : input impedance, radiation
efficiency

Broadband Antennas: Bbroad = fupper : flower (B=10:1)

Narrowband Antennas: Bnarrow = (fupper – flower) / fcentre
(B=5%)

Frequency Independent Antennas: Bfr.ind. > 40 : 1

 Beam-width
• Half-power beamwidth (HPBW) is the angle
between two vectors from the pattern’s origin to the
points of the major lobe where the radiation
intensity is half its maximum
• Often used to describe the antenna resolution properties

• First-null beamwidth (FNBW) is the angle between

two vectors, originating at the pattern’s origin and
tangent to the main beam at its base.
» Often FNBW ≈ 2*HPBW
 Radiation
Pattern
Polar plot
• Whenever we speak of
radiation patterns, we
normally mean we are at a
distance far enough from the
antenna known as the far
field.

dB= 10 log Pn(θ,Φ) or,

dB= 20 log En(θ,Φ)
 Pattern –plot, Field and Power

Note that when plotted

in decibels, the power
and field patterns look
exactly the same.

Field radiation pattern Power radiation pattern

If any antenna, Eθ= Cos2θ= 0.707

So, θ= 33 deg. Half power beam width= 66 deg.
 Beamwidth, HPBW
• Is the “distance” in radians o degrees between
the direction of the radiation pattern where
the radiated power is half of the maximum.
• Can be found by solving Pn()=.5
10 log 0.5  -3 dB
20 log 0.707  -3 dB
for " pencil beam" shape;
o 
HPBM  70
D
 Solid Angle or beam area

s1 = r ds2 = r sin dø

s =r = arc dA = s1 s2
dA = r2 sin  dø d
= r2 dΩ
 = plane angle dΩ = elemental solid angle
•El total arc of the circle: • El area of the surface :
= 2r = 4r2
•Angle total: = 2 [radianes] •Total solid angle : =4 [rad2]
=4 [sr]
1 steradian (sr) = (1 radian)2
 Total Solid Angle of an antenna
 2

  Pn( , ) sin  d d  4
z

 
0 0
žA A

 A   Pn ( ,  )d [sr]
Patrón
4 |Pn|

Is as if you changed the radiation y

pattern beam of an antenna into a x
pencil beam shape and find out what’s
the equivalent solid angle occupied by
this pattern.
 Gain or Directivity

An isotropic antenna and a practical antenna

fed with the same power. Their patterns
would compare as in the figure on the right.
 Directivity and Gain
• All practical antennas radiate more than the isotropic
antenna in some directions and less in others.
• Gain is inherently directional; the gain of an antenna is
usually measured in the direction which it radiates best.

D  Dmax ( ,  )  Pmax / Pave  U max /U ave

If lossless antenna, G=D

 Gain or Directivity
• Gain is measured by comparing an antenna to a
model antenna, typically the isotropic antenna which
radiates equally in all directions.

P( , ) 4r P ( ,  )
2
D( ,  )  P / PAVE  
A 
1 P dA Prad

4U max
Do   4/ A   isotropic / A
Prad
 Directivity
• For an antenna with a single main lobe pointing in the z-
direction , A can be approximated to the product of the
HPBW

 A   xz  yz
then

The Directivity:
4
D  4/ A 
 xz  yz
 Beam area and beam efficiency
2 
Beam area A    Pn ( ,  )  sin( )dd   Pn ( ,  )d
0 0
4

Main beam area M   P ( ,  )d

Main
n

beam

Minor lobes area m   P ( ,  )d

min or
n

lobes

 A  M  m

M
Main beam efficiency M 
A
 Far field
• The distance at which the fields transmitted by an
antenna (spherical) can be approximated to plane
waves.
• It’s defined as

r  2L /  2

L = is the largest physical dimension of the

antenna
 = wavelength of operation
R = distance from the antenna to the observation
point
 Radiation Resistance
• The antenna is connected to a T.L., and it “sees” it
as an impedance.
• The power radiated is
1 2
Prad  I o Rrad
2

• The loss power is 1 2

Ploss  I o RL
2

Prad Rrad
 
Prad  Ploss Rrad  Rloss
 Antennas – Efficiency
Efficiency
Power is fed to an antenna through a T-Line
and the antenna appears as a complex
impedance
Z ant  Rant  jX ant .
where the antenna resistance consists of
radiation resistance and and a dissipative
resistance.
Rant  Rrad  Rdis
For the antenna is driven by phasor current I o  I s e j
The power radiated by the The power dissipated by
antenna is ohmic losses is
1 2
Prad  I o Rrad 1
2 Pdiss  I o2 Rdiss
2
An antenna efficiency e can be defined as the ratio of the
radiated power to the total power fed to the antenna.
Prad Rrad
e 
Prad  Pdiss Rrad  Rdiss
 Antennas – Gain
Gain

The power gain, G, of an antenna is very much like its directive

gain, but also takes into account efficiency

G   ,    eD   ,  

The maximum power gain

Gmax  eDmax

The maximum power gain is often expressed in dB.

Gmax  dB   10 log 10  Gmax 

 Antenna efficiency, 
• Efficiency is the ratio of power put into the antenna terminals

•
to the power actually radiated
Radiation in an antenna is caused by radiation resistance
Prad  ηPin
which can only be measured as part of total resistance
including loss resistance.

• Q-factor
• The concept of Q-factor (or Quality factor) is used to describe

G  D
the antenna as a resonator.
• A high Q-factor means a sharp resonance and narrow
bandwidth. The Q-factor can be expressed as:
Q = antenna reactance / antenna resistance.
• Usually in circuit design we want elements to have a high Q-
factor in order to reduce the circuit loss. However, talking
about antennas we want a low Q-factor because the
“loss”involved is the radiation we really want. A low-Q
antenna is easier to match and tune, and have a wider
bandwidth.
Integrating over the volume of concern and using the divergence
theorem to convert the volume integral of  (E  H) to the
closed surface integral of (E  H) we have equation

referred to as Poynting’s theorem:

 1 2 1 2 
   
(E  H )  d s   v 2 E  H dv  v  E dv
 E 2
 
t 2
   s               
Rate of decrease in Ohmic power
Total power
energy stored in electric dissipated as
leaving the
and magnetic fields heat
volume

2
s  ( E  H ) (W/m )
Poynting vector (represents the power
sav  1 / 2 Re( E  H ) flow per unit area)

62
Integrating over the volume of concern and using the divergence
theorem to convert the volume integral of  (E  H) to the
closed surface integral of (E  H) we have equation

referred to as Poynting’s theorem:

 1 2 1 2 
   
(E  H )  d s   v 2 E  H dv  v  E dv
 E 2
 
t 2
   s               
Rate of decrease in Ohmic power
Total power
energy stored in electric dissipated as
leaving the
and magnetic fields heat
volume

s  ( E  H ) (W/m 2 )
sav  1 / 2 Re( E  H ) Poynting vector (represents the power
flow per unit area)

63
 Antenna effective area
Assuming that the antenna is matched with the transmission line, the power
received by the antenna is Prec = Sav Ae

where Ae is the effective aperture of the antenna. The Effective Area Ae …

… characterises the antenna’s ability to absorb the incident power density w and
to deliver it to the load. (Receiving Antenna!)

Maximum power can be delivered to a load impedance, if it has a value that is

complex conjugate of the antenna impedance: ZL = ZA*.
Prec  2 D
How a Rx antenna extracts energy from incident Ae  
wave and delivers it to a load? Pinc 4
Above is valid for any antenna under matched-load conditions
 Antenna radiation energy
Antennas exhibit a property of reciprocity: the properties of an antenna are the
same whether it is used as a transmitting antenna or receiving antenna.

5. Effective aperture.
For the receiving antennas, the effective aperture can be loosely defined as a
ratio of the power absorbed by the antenna to the power incident on it.
OR, “in a given direction, the ratio of the power at the antenna terminals to the
power flux density of a plane wave incident on the antenna from that direction,
the polarization of the both antennas are same.”
The incident power density can be found as
Sav =E2/Zo
Prec = Sav Ae = Ae .E2/Zo
= (E2r/Zo)r2ΩA ,where r is far field distance
So, Ae= Prec/Pinc = Dλ2/4Π
 Friis Transmission Eq.
• In any communication link, there is a
transmitting antenna and a receiver with a
receiver antenna.
At Ar Pt
Prec  ArPt  2 2
λ R
TX
Pt G t G r Pt  2
Pisotr  Prec 
4 R 2  4 R  2 RX

G t Pt A t Pt
Ptx  Gt Pisotr   2 2
4 R 2
 R
 Antenna polarization
• The polarization of an antenna is the polarization of
the signals it emits.
– Polarizations commonly considered are vertical, horizontal,
and circular.
• Polarization
• Direction of E-field of EM wave

• An electric antenna mounted vertically is said to be vertically polarised

because the radiating electric wave field component is vertically oriented.

• A receiving antenna should also be oriented to have the same

polarization direction in order to receive the strongest possible signal.

• If not, we will experience a polarisation loss or XPD (cross ploarisation

diffraction occur
 Polarisation of EM wave

circular

vertical

Electrical field, E
horizontal
Polarization pattern
Polarization
 Linear polarization
• Is such that the E-field, electric field, is orientated
at a constant angle as it is propagated.
•
• Circular polarization is the super position of two
orthogonal linear polarizations
• For example vertical and horizontal, having equal amplitude and with a 90º phase
difference.

• The tip of the resultant E-field vector may be

imagined to rotate as it propagates a helical path.
 Polarization

A clockwise rotation viewed as the wave propagates away from the

observer is referred to as right hand circular polarization and an anti-
clockwise rotation as left-hand circular polarization.
 Circular polarized

2.  
2
2
 E x  Ax cos t
2
 E x  Ax cos t Ex Ey
    1
 E   A sin  t Ax
2
Ay
2
 E y  Ay cos(t   )  y y

Standard elliptical
y equation
For particular
Ay case E x  EAy y
of y y

E x E x
E x E
A
Ax A
Ax
x

 
  
2 2
 Elleptical/Circular Polarization
Power

Sav= ½ E2/Z , where E= ( E21 + E22)/2 two

directional electric field for circularly or
elliptically polarized wave.
Polarization
 Polarization and cross-polarization

• Both the antenna and the electromagnetic field whether it

receives or transmits signal have polarization properties.

• The polarization of em wave describes the shape and orientation

of the locus of the extremities of the field vectors as a function
of time.

• A wave may be described as linearly polarized, circularly

polarized, or, elliptically polarized.
 Cross polarization
– This is of constant interest to communication
antenna designers.
In the case of an antenna transmitting, or receiving, a linearly
polarized field, the cross-polar component of the field is a right
angle to the co-polar component.
- If the co-polar component is vertical, then the cross-polarized
component is horizontal.

- Is that of the opposite to the desired principal, or reference polarization.

-
- The level of impurity is measured by the ellipticity and known as the ‘axial
ratio’.
POLARIZATION DISCRIMINATION IN AN ANTENNA
RADIATION PATTERN