Unannounced Group INTERIM ASSESSMENT
To be Collected at end of Today’s Lesson
1. Describe an experiment to determine the fluidity of molten metal
2. Give and briefly explain three factors that affects fluidity of molten
metal for each category below
(a) characteristics of molten metal
(b) Casting Parameters
3. Sketch grain structures for square mould castings in the case of:
(a) pure metal,
(b) Solid Solution alloys
(c) Use of nucleating agents
4. With aid of plots, describe the stages involved in the solidification
or contraction of metals during casting for
(a) pure metals
(b) Alloys
Lesson Objectives
• Determination of fluidity of molten metal
• Brief description of a Gating system
• Description of solidification in Pure Metals & Alloys
• Understanding equations governing pouring of molten metals
• Appropriate use of equations governing flow of molten metal to reduce
possible defects
Fluidity of the Molten Metal
Fludity of metal is determined generally by sprial mold test.
The fludity index is the length of the solidified metal in the
sprial Passage.
Greater the length of the solidified metal, greater is its fludity.
Figure 10.9 A test method for fluidity
using a spiral mold. The fluidity index is
the length of the solidified metal in the
spiral passage. The greater the length of
the solidified metal, the greater is its
fluidity.
Factors affecting Molten Metal
Fluidity: The capability of a molten metal to fill mold cavities
Viscosity: Higher viscosity decreases fluidity
Surface tension: Decreases fluidity; often caused by oxide
film
Inclusions: Insoluble particles can increase viscosity,
reducing fluidity
Solidification pattern: Fluidity is inversely proportionalto
the freezing temperature range
Factors: Casting Parameters
1. Mold design: The design and size of the sprue, runners, and
risers affect fluidity
2. Mold material and surface: Thermal conductivity and
roughness decrease fluidity
3. Superheating:
The temperature increment above the
melting point increases fluidity.
4. Pouring: Lower pouring rates decrease fluidity because of
faster cooling
5. Heat transfer: Affects the viscosity of the metal
Gating System
۞Gating systems refer to all those elements which are
connected with the flow of molten metal from the
ladle to the mould cavity.
Following are the elements of gating systems:
۞Pouring Basin
۞Sprue
۞Sprue Base Well
۞Runner
۞Runner Extension
۞Gate or Ingate
۞Riser
Objective of The Gating System
The four main points, which enables a proper gating system,
are:
1. Clean molten metal.
2. Smooth filling of the casting cavity.
3. Uniform filling of the casting cavity.
4. Complete filling of the casting cavity.
• The mold cavity must be filled with a clean metal so that
it prevents the entry of slag and inclusions into the mold
cavity, which in turn minimizes the surface instability.
• If the mold has smooth filling then it helps to reduce the
bulk turbulence. If it has a uniform filling it means that
the casting fill is in a controlled manner.
• Complete filling of the cavity makes the metal thin with
minimum resistance at the end sections.
Gating System
• A good gating design ensures proper
distribution of molten metal without excessive
temperature loss, turbulence, gas entrapping
and slags.
• Very slow pouring, require longer filling time
and solidification will start even before filling
of mould.
• Faster pouring can erode the mould cavity.
• So gating design is important and it depends on
the metal and molten metal composition. For
example, aluminium can get oxidized easily.
Figure 10.8 Schematic illustration of a typical riser- gated
casting. Risers serve as reservoirs, supplying molten metal to
the casting as it shrinks during solidification.
Types of Gating System
Main types of gates are following:
1. Vertical Gating System
2. Bottom Gating System
3. Horizontal Gating System
Types of Gating System
1. Vertical Gating System : Lliquid metal is poured vertically, directly to fill the
mould with atmospheric pressure at the base end. This is applied in tall
castings, where high-pressure sand mold, shell mold and die-casting
processes are used.
2. Bottom Gating System : Molten metal is poured from top, but filled from
bottom to top of in tall castings . This minimizes oxidation and splashing while
pouring.
Bottom Gating
Vertical Gating
Types of Gating system
4. Horizontal Gating System : Horizontal gating is a modification of bottom gating,
in which some horizontal portions are added for good distribution of molten
metal and to avoid turbulence. This is used most widely. This type is normally
applied in ferrous metal's sand casting and gravity die-casting of non-ferrous
metals. They are used for flat casting, which are filled under gravity
5. Top Gating System : This is applied in places where the hot metal is poured
form the top of the casting. It helps directional solidification of the casting from
top to bottom. It suits only flat castings to limit the damage of the metal during
the initial filling.
6. Middle Gating System : It has characteristics of both top
and
bottom. Horizontal Gating
Top
CHARACTERISTICS OF GATING
SYSTEM
o The purpose of gating system is to deliver the molten metal to mold.
A gating system should be able to do the following:
1. Permit complete filling of the mold cavity
2. Requires minimum time to fill the mold cavity
3. Minimum turbulence so as to minimize gas pickup
4. Regulate rate at which molten metal enters the mold cavity.
5. Prevent unwanted material from entering mould cavity
6. Establish suitable temperature gradients.
7. No mould erosion
8. Simple and economical design
9. Easy to implement and remove after solidification
Objectives 5
Description of solidification in:
Pure Metals
Alloys
What is Solidification ?
Grain growth stops when complete melt has been solidified
Dendritic Growth
In crystallization growth starts from the centre of the
nuclei and crystals grow towards each other.
When two or more crystals collide their growth is
stopped.
Finally the entire space is filled with crystals.
Factors affecting grain size :–
Number and location of the nuclei at the time of
solidification
Shape of the mould in which the metal solidifies
Rate of crystallisation
Rate of cooling
Cold working
Nucleating agents
TYPES OF GRAINS:
equiaxed-(1 & 3), columnar (2) and dendritic (4)
4
SOLIDIFICATION
• After pouring into the mold, the molten metal cools
and solidifies
Solidification of Metals
• Solidification involves the transformation of the
molten metal back into the solid state.
• The solidification process differs depending on
whether the metal is a pure element or an alloy
Pure Metals
• A pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature
equal to its freezing point, which is the same as
its melting point
• The process occurs over time as shown in the
plot of Figure, called cooling curve
• The actual freezing takes time, called the local
solidification time in casting, during which the
metal’s latent heat of fusion is released into the
surrounding mold
Figure 1: Cooling curve for a pure metal during casting
• The total solidification time is the time taken
between pouring and complete solidification
• After the casting has completely solidified, cooling
continues at a rate indicated by the downward
slope of the cooling curve
• As cooling continues, further grain formation and
growth occur in a direction away from the heat
transfer.
• Since the heat transfer is through the skin and
mold wall, the grains grow inwardly as needles or
spines of solid metal
• As these spines enlarge, lateral branches form, and grow, further
branches form at right angles to the first branches. This type of
grain growth is referred to as dendritic growth, and it occurs not
only in the freezing of pure metals but alloys as well
Figure 2: Characteristic grain structure in a casting of a pure metal,
showing randomly oriented grains of small size near the mold wall,
and large columnar grains oriented toward the center of the
casting.
Most Alloys
(a) Phase diagram for a copper–nickel alloy system &
(b) Associated cooling curve for a 50%Ni– 50%Cu composition
during casting.
• Solidification of an alloy can be explained with
reference to Fig.4 which shows the phase
diagram for a particular alloy system and the
cooling curve for a given composition
• As temperature drops, freezing begins at the
temperature indicated by the liquidus and is
completed when the solidus is reached
• The start of freezing is similar to that of the pure
metal.
• A thin skin is formed at the mold wall due to the
large temperature gradient at this surface
• Freezing then progresses as before through the
formation of dendrites that grow away from the
walls
• Another factor complicating solidification of alloys is
that the composition of the dendrites as they start to
form favors the metal with the higher melting point.
As freezing continues and the dendrites grow, there
develops an imbalance in composition between the
metal that has solidified and the remaining molten
metal
Eutectic Alloys
• Eutectic alloys constitute an exception
to the general process by which alloys
solidify. A eutectic alloy is a particular
composition in an alloy system for
which the solidus and liquidus are at
the same temperature.
• Hence, solidification occurs at a
constant temperature rather than
over a temperature range
End of lecture series on
Fluidity and Solidification of Metals
Defects in Casting
SHRINKAGE
The impact of shrinkage during freezing and cooling occurs in
3 steps;
(1)liquid contraction during cooling prior to
solidification;
(2)contraction during the phase change from liquid to solid,
called solidification shrinkage; and
(3)thermal contraction of the solidified casting during
cooling to room temperature
Shrinkage of a cylindrical casting during solidification and cooling:
(1)starting level of molten metal immediately after
pouring;
(2)reduction in level caused by liquid contraction during
cooling;
(3)reduction in height and formation of shrinkage cavity
caused by solidification shrinkage; and
(4)further reduction in height and diameter due to
thermal contraction during cooling of the solid metal.
• Please note that for clarity, dimensional
reductions are exaggerated in sketches.
• Pattern-makers account for thermal contraction
by making the mold cavities oversized
• The amount by which the mold must be made
larger relative to the final casting size is called the
pattern shrinkage allowance
Directional Solidification
• In order to minimize the damaging effects of
shrinkage, it is desirable for the regions of the
casting most distant from the liquid metal supply
to freeze first and for solidification to progress
from these remote regions toward the riser(s)
• In this way, molten metal will continually be
available from the risers to prevent shrinkage
voids during freezing
• The term directional solidification is used to
describe this aspect of the freezing process and
the methods by which it is controlled.
• The desired directional solidification is achieved
by observing Chvorinov’s rule in the design of the
casting itself, its orientation within the mold, and
the design of the riser system that feeds it
• Another way to encourage directional
solidification is to use chills—internal or external
heat sinks that cause rapid freezing in certain
regions of the casting
• Internal chills are small metal parts placed inside
the cavity before pouring so that the molten
metal will solidify first around these parts
• The internal chill should have a chemical
composition similar to the metal being poured,
most readily achieved by making the chill out of
the same metal as the casting itself
• External chills are metal inserts in the walls of the
mold cavity that can remove heat from the molten
metal more rapidly than the surrounding sand in
order to promote solidification
• They are often used effectively in sections of the
casting that are difficult to feed with liquid metal,
thus encouraging rapid freezing in these sections
while the connection to liquid metal is still open.
(a)External chill to encourage rapid freezing of the
molten metal in a thin section of the casting; and
(b)The likely result if the external chill were not
used.
Common Casting Defects
Brief description are as below:
(a) Misruns, which are castings that solidify before completely filling the mold
cavity.
Typical causes include (1) fluidity of the molten metal is insufficient, (2)
pouring temperature is too low, (3) pouring is done too slowly, and/or (4) cross-
section of the mold cavity is too thin.
(b) Cold Shuts, which occur when two portions of the metal flow together but
there is a lack of fusion between them due to premature freezing. Its causes are
similar to those of a misrun.
(c) Cold shots, which result from splattering during pouring, causing the formation
of solid globules of metal that become entrapped in the casting.
Pouring procedures and gating system designs that avoid splattering can prevent
this defect.
FIGURE 11.22 Some common defects in
castings: (a) misrun, (b) cold shut, (c) cold shot,
(d) shrinkage cavity, (e) microporosity, and (f) hot tearing.
Some defects are related to the use of sand molds, and therefore they occur only in
sand castings. To a lesser degree, other expendable-mold processes are also susceptible to
these problems.
Defects found primarily in sand castings are shown in Figure 11.23 and
described here:
(a) Sand blow is a defect consisting of a balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of
mold gases during pouring. It occurs at or below the casting surface near the top of
the casting. Low permeability, poor venting, and high moisture content of the sand
mold are the usual causes.
(b) Pinholes, also caused by release of gases during pouring, consist of many small gas
cavities formed at or slightly below the surface of the casting.
(c) Sand wash, which is an irregularity in the surface of the casting that results from
erosion of the sand mold during pouring, and the contour of the erosion is formed in
the surface of the final cast part.
FIGURE 11.23
Common defects in sand
castings: (a) sand blow, (b) pin holes, (c) sand wash, (d) scabs, (e)
penetration, (f) mold shift, (g) core shift, and
(h) mold crack.
