Genetics: Study of Heredity
Aim: What is Genetics?
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Sexual Reproduction:
• Two parents
• Half of the genetic information is
received from one parent, half from
the other.
• Variation Evolution
Asexual Reproduction:
• One parent
• Offspring is identical to parent.
• Clones- identical genetic copies.
Genetics:
• Gregor Mendel- 1800’s
• “Father of Genetics”
• Pea plants: easy to grow
• Contrasting traits
• Easily self and cross pollinate.
• From his studies, Mendel arrived at
conclusions that are the basis for genetics
today!
Additional Vocabulary
• Genetics: Study of heredity
• Heredity: Passing of genetic information
from an organism to it’s offspring.
• Genes: units of heredity
– Determines traits/ characteristics an
offspring will have.
– Located on chromosomes.
– For each trait-> minimum of 2 genes. One
from mom, one from dad.
• There are many genes located on a
Chromosome.
Genes
Hereditary Information:
• DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid
• Organic (C, H, O, N, P).
• Double stranded
• Organized in the form of genes located on the
chromosomes.
Hereditary Information:cont.
• Homologous chromosomes- are same size
and shape (one from each parent)
– This allows for crossing over and variation to
occur.
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Genotype vs. Phenotype:
Genotype- genes
Ex: B,b,S,s
Phenotype-Physical
appearance
Ex: Fur Color, Fur
Length
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Genetic Recombination:
• Sperm and egg combine to form a
new cell.
• New cell (offspring) has a complete
set of genetic information (DNA).
Each offspring is unique.
The Genetic Code:
– Structure of DNA was
discovered by 2
scientists:
– 1953 James Watson
and Francis Crick
– Created a model
known as the Double
Helix a twisted
ladder.
What is the structure of DNA?
Structure of DNA
• Long chain of repeating units ( polymer) called
nucleotides.
• A nucleotide unit contains:
1. phosphate group O
2. deoxyribose (sugar)
3. nitrogenous base:
– A- adenine
– T- thymine
– C- cytosine
– G- guanine
Structure of DNA
One Strand of DNA
• The backbone of phosphate
the molecule is
alternating
phosphate and deoxyribose
deoxyribose, a
sugar, parts.
• The teeth are
nitrogenous bases
bases.
Two Stranded DNA
• Remember,
DNA has two
strands that fit
together
something like a
zipper.
Types of nitrogen bases
• A= adenine
• G= guanine
• C= cytosine
• T= thymine
Structure of a Double Helix
• Sides of the “ladder” are
alternating phosphate group and
deoxyribose sugar.
• “rungs” of the ladder are made
of 2 nitrogenous bases.
• Specific pairings:
– There is a weak Hydrogen
bond
Between the base pairs.
– Structure as a double helix
– When a cell goes through
mitosis(cell division) the DNA
must also make a copy of
itself.
DNA by the numbers
• Each cell has about 2 m
of DNA.
• The average human has
75 trillion cells.
• The average human has
enough DNA to go from
the earth to the sun
more than 400 times.
• DNA has a diameter of The earth is 150 billion m
only 0.000000002 m. or 93 million miles from
the sun.
Aim: How does DNA replicate?
Do Now: Please answer the questions on
the handout found on the front desk, omit
questions 5-7.
Genetics Can
Tell All
G-Guanine
C-Cytosine
T-Thymine
A-Adenine
Base Pairing
• Which bases always
match up?
• A-T
• G-C
• Adenine always binds
with Thymine
• Cytosine always binds
with Guanine
Steps of Replication:
1. DNA unwinds
2. DNA unzips
3. Old strands become
templates for new
strands
4. Result- 2 identical DNA
molecules
Characteristics of a Double
Helix
• Proteins and Cell Functioning:
– Proteins- long chains formed from
20 kinds of amino acids.
– Sequence(order) of the amino acids
influences the shape of the
molecule.
– Proteins include: enzymes, insulin,
eye color, and skin color.
DNA- Protein Connection:
– Genes contain coded information.
– This information is used to make proteins
that are required for it’s function and
structure.
– Ribosomes construct proteins based on the
cell’s DNA code (combo of A, C, T, G’s).
– Parent and offspring produce similar traits
that is why there is resemblance between
them. They produce similar proteins.
Aim: How does protein synthesis
Work?
Protein Synthesis:
• The building of protein
molecules.
• Synthesizing protein from DNA.
• Proteins are chains of amino
acids.
Steps:
– Begins in the nucleus with DNA.
– DNA code is read by a “ messenger
molecule” messenger RNA; ;
– mRNA.
– “messenger molecule: travels into
the cytoplasm of the cell to the
ribosome.
Steps cont.:
– With the help of “transfer molecules”
tRNA amino acids move to the ribosomes
to make proteins.
– The ribosomes “reads” the code and a
chain of amino acids is produced forming
a protein.
– ***Protein structure is determined by
DNA***
RNA:
• Ribonucleic Acid
• Single stranded
• Nitrogenous bases
– A- adenine
– U- uracil
– C- cystosine
– G- guanine
Types of RNA
– Messenger RNA (mRNA)
Copies code from DNA
Brings to ribosome
– Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Brings amino acids to ribosome for
protein assembly
– Mutations:
Alteration of DNA sequence.
Causes a change in code carried for by
the gene.
Random, but can be increased because
of chemicals, radiation.
Aim: What are different genetic
mutations?
• Do Now: Please complete the handout on
the front desk.
Different Types of Mutations:
• Original DNA Template C A A T G C T A C
– 1. Substitution: one base pair for another.
CAACGCTAC
– 2. Deletion: missing a base.
CAATOCTAC
– 3. Addition: adding an extra base
CAATAGCTAC
– 4. Inversion: bases are rearranged.
CAGATCTAC
Causes of Mutations
• Environmental Conditions can affect how
genes are expressed.
– Ex. Himalayan rabbit
– Warmer body temperature white fur
– Colder body temperature black fur
• ** Identical twins- separated- different
personalities
• Chemicals, hormones can activate a gene,
causing certain proteins to be produced.
Genetic Engineering
• Used to alter instructions in organisms.
• Produce more desirable traits.
Selective Breeding:
•Produces animals and plants
with desirable traits.
•Horse & donkey= mule.
(outbreeding)
•Ex. Larger, juicier fruits…
•Pure dog, pure cat. (inbreeding)
Inbreeding/ Outbreeding
Breeding continued:
• ** In sexually reproducing
organisms only mutations found
on sex cells can be inherited by
the offspring.
• Mutations occurring in body cells
will only affect that organism.
DNA and Individuality:
• The order of the nitrogenous base pairs,
A,T,C,G’s are what makes each person an
individual and unique. This is because the order
allows for certain proteins to be produced.
• In an organism every cell contains the same
genetic code.
• However, each cell is different: hair cells, skin
cells, liver cells, stomach cells.
Gene Expression.
• Each cell only uses some of the
genetic information from the
chromosomes.
• Certain parts of the chromosomes
get “turned on” or “turned off.”
Gene Manipulation:
• Altering genes using enzymes
• By manipulating the DNA in plant
cells or animal cells; favorable
offspring can be produced
• Produce bacteria that can be
beneficial.
Steps:
• Cut DNA segment with enzymes
• This segment can be spliced (moved) and
attached to DNA of a new organism.
• New organism will make the protein coded
for by DNA code.
Gene Manipulation
Biotechnology:
• Apply technology to biology.
• Applications of Biotechnology:
– By using gene therapy and applying
it to modern medicine scientists
may:
– Produce hormones, enzymes and
other body chemicals.
– Provide at a low cost.
– Provide a purer form.
