CONTENTS

Evaporation Process
Analytical methods of evaporation estimation
Aerodynamic or Mass-Transfer method
Energy Balance Method
combined Aerodynamic and Energy Balance Method
Reservoir Evaporation and method of its reduction
Evapotranspiration
Initial loss
Subsurface Water
Evaporation Process:
• Consider a body of water in a pond. The molecules of water are in
constant motion with a wide range of instantaneous velocities. An
addition of heat causes this range and average speed to increase.
• When some molecules possess sufficient kinetic energy, they may cross
over the water surface. Similarly, the atmosphere in the immediate
neighbourhood of the water surface contains water molecules within
the water vapour in motion and some of them may penetrate the water
surface.
• The net escape of water molecules from the liquid state to the gaseous
state constitutes evaporation.
Factors affecting the Evaporation: Following factors affect the rate of evaporation .
1) Vapour Pressure: The rate of evaporation is proportional to the
difference between the saturation vapour pressure at the water
temperature, ew and the actual vapour pressure in the air, ea.
EL = C (ew – ea )
• where EL = rate of evaporation (mm/day) and
• C = a constant;
• ew and ea are in mm of mercury. Above equation is known as Dalton’s
law of evaporation.
• Evaporation continues till ew = ea. If ew > ea condensation takes place.
• Temperature: Other factors remaining the same, the rate of evaporation
increases with an increase in the water temperature.
• Wind: the rate of evaporation increases with the wind speed up to a
critical speed beyond which any further increase in the wind speed has no
influence on the evaporation rate. This critical wind- speed value is a
function of the size of the water surface.
• Atmospheric Pressure: Other factors remaining same, a decrease in the
barometric pressure, as in high altitudes, increases evaporation.
• Soluble salts: When soluble salt is dissolved in water, the vapour
pressure of the solution is less than that of pure water and hence
causes reduction in the rate of evaporation.
• Heat storage in water Bodies: Deep water bodies have more heat
storage than shallow ones. A deep lake may store radiation energy
received in summer and release it in winter causing less evaporation
in summer and more evaporation in winter compared to a shallow
lake exposed to a similar condition
  Measurement of Evaporation
• The amount of evaporated water from water surface is estimated by
following methods.
1. Using evaporimeter data: Evaporimeters are water-containing pans
which are exposed to the atmosphere and the loss of water by
evaporation measured in them at regular intervals.A few commonly
evaporimeters are described here.
a) Class A Evaporation Pan: Go through the article 3.3 of K.subramanya
book “Engineering Hydrology”
b) ISI Evaporation Pan: Go through the article 3.3 of K.subramanya book
“Engineering Hydrology”
• Pan coefficient, Cp: Evaporation pans are not exact models of large
reservoirs and have the following principal drawbacks:
They differ in the heat-storing capacity and heat transfer from the
sides and bottom. The result of this factor the evaporation from a pan
depends to a certain extent on its size.
The height of the rim in an evaporation pan affects the wind action
over the surface. Also, it casts a shadow of variable magnitude over
the water surface.
The heat-transfer characteristics of the pan material is different from
that of the reservoir.Thus coefficient is introduced as
Lake evaporation = Cp × pan evaporation
in which Cp = pan coefficient.
The values of Cp in use for different pans are given in

S.No. Types of pan Average value Range

1. Class A Land Pan 0.70 0.60–0.80

2. ISI Pan (modified Class A) 0.80 0.65–1.10

Evaporation Station:
The WMO recommends the minimum network of evaporimeter
stations as below:

• Arid zones—One station for every 30,000 km2,

• Humid temperate climates—One station for every 50,000 km2, and
• Cold regions—One station for every 100,000 km2
EMPIRICAL Evaporation Equations:
• A large number of empirical equations are available to estimate lake evaporation
using commonly available meteorological data. Most formulae are based on the
Dalton- type equation and can be expressed as
• EL = Kf (u)(ew – ea)
where EL = lake evaporation in mm/day,
ew = saturated vapour pressure at the water- surface temperature in mm of
mercury,
ea = actual vapour pressure of over-lying air at a specified height in mm of mercury,
f (u) = wind-speed correction function and
K = a coefficient.
 Two commonly used empirical evaporation formulae are:

 Meyer’s Formula:

in which EL, ew, ea are as defined in

u9 = monthly mean wind velocity in km/ h at about 9 m above ground and
KM = coefficient accounting for various other factors with a value of 0.36 for large deep waters and
0.50 for small, shallow waters.
• Rohwer Formula: Rohwer’s formula considers a correction for the
effect of pressure in addition to the wind-speed effect and is given by
EL = 0.771(1.465 – 0.000732 pa )(0.44 + 0.0733 u0) (ew – ea )
in which EL, ew, and ea are as defined earlier in Eq. (3.2),
• pa = mean barometric reading in mm of mercury
• u0 = mean wind velocity in km/h at ground level, which can be taken
to be the velocity at 0.6 m height above ground.
• Often, the wind-velocity data would be available at an elevation other
than that needed in the particular equation. However, it is known that
in the lower part of the atmosphere, upto a height of about 500 m
above the ground level, the wind velocity can be assumed to follow
the 1/7 power law as
uh = Ch1/7
• where uh = wind velocity at a height h above the ground and C =
constant. This equa- tion can be used to determine the velocity at any
desired level if uh is known.
 Analytical methods of evaporation estimation:
• These are broadly classified into three categories.
• Water-Budget method: It involves writing the hydrological continuity equation for the lake and determining
the evaporation from a knowledge or estimation of other variables. Thus considering the daily average
values for a lake, the continuity equation is written as
P + Vis + Vig = Vos + Vog +EL + ∆S + TL
whereP = daily precipitation
• Vis = daily surface inflow into the lake
• Vig = daily groundwater inflow
• Vos = daily surface outflow from the lake
• Vog = daily seepage outflow
• EL = daily lake evaporation
• ∆S = increase in lake storage in a day
• TL = daily transpiration loss
• All quantities are in units of volume (m3) or depth (mm) over a reference area.
• Above equation can be written as

EL = P + (Vis – Vos) + (Vig – Vog) – TL – ∆S

• In this the terms P, Vis, Vos and ∆S can be measured. However, it is

not possible to measure Vig. Vog and TL and therefore these
quantities can only be estimated. In view of the various uncertainties
in the estimated values and the possibilities of errors in measured
variables, the water-budget method cannot be expected to give very
accurate results.
 Energy-Balance Method:
• Consider the following figure for control volume for evaporation from
the pan
• Continuity:
Because C.V Contains Water in both the liquid and vapour phases, the
integral Continuity equation must be Written separately for each
phases for liquid phase.
The extensive property: B = mass of liquid water, p=1, p = p (density of
Water) and dB = - mv (mass flow rate of evaporation). The Continuity
equation for liquid phase is
• The pan has impermeable side so.

• The rate of change of storage in the system is given by

• therefore,………….(1)
• Or,

Where is evaporation rate

• For vapour phase, B= mass of Water vapour,
• β = qv specific humidity.
• ρ= ρa air density.

• So Continuity equation for Vapour phase is

 Energy:
• As we already know, the energy balance of a hydrologic system is expressed as

• rate of heat input to the system from external sources

• Here,

• Z= elevation which is very small

• So, above equation becomes
• Considering a unit area of Water Surface, source of heat energy is net radiation
Rn; the Water Supplies a sensible heat flux HS to air stream, HS and ground heat
flux G to the ground surface, So,

• It is assumed that temperature of the Water within C.V is constant in time, the
only change in heat stored in the C.V is change in internal energy of water
evaporated, which is equal to Where is the latent heat of evaporation.
• So above equation. (1) can be written as

• Or since (A=1 m2) From continuity equation for vapour

• This is the energy balance equation.

  Aerodynamic or Mass-Transfer method
• Besides the supply of heat energy, the second. factor controlling the
evaporation rate from an open water surface is the ability to transport
vapour away from the surface.
• The transport rate is governed by the humidity gradient in air area the
surface and wind speed across the Surface, and these two processes can be
analysed, by a coupling the equation for mass and moment transport in air.
• In the control volume shown earlier, consider a horizontal plane of unit area
located at height Z above the surface. The vapour flux passing upward by
convection through this plane is
(C=qv)……………(1)
• Kw= vapour eddy diffusivity
• The momentum flux upward through the plane is likewise given as
• Suppose that elevation Z1, Z2 are close to each other, and respective quantities are
expressed by Suffixes. 1, and 2. Then.

• So, ratio of (1) and (2) can be written as

• The wind velocity near the earth surface (upto 50m) is well described by logarithmic
profile laws

• Where u*= Shear Velocity = ,

• k= von Karman constant taken as 0.4,
• Zo is roughness height.
• So,

• Or,

• OR,

• Or,
• Substituting this relation in equation (3) & rearranging

• This is Thorthwaite - Holzman equation for vapour transport In application, usually Kw/
km = 1 is assumed. For operational application, it is assumed that u1=0 at Z1=Z0
(roughness height) and air is saturated with, moisture there. Also qv = 0.622 e/p, where e
is vapour pressure and p is ambient pressure. At height Z2 the vapour pressure is eaand
vapour pressure at surface is taken as eas, the saturated vapour pressure Corresponding
to ambient air temperature. Under these assumptions equation (6) is written as

• is defined here for a unit area of surface, an equivalent evaporation rate Ea expressed as

• putting this in above equation, and rearranging

• Where, ……………(10)
• Equation (9) is famous Dalton equation.
• combined Aerodynamic and Energy Balance Method:
• In the energy balance method, the sensible heat flux Hs is difficult to quantify. But since heat
is transferred by convection through the air overlying the water surface, and water vapour is
similarly transferred by Convection, it can be assumed that the vapour heat flux and sensible
heat flux Hs are proportional, the propotionality constant being called Bowen ratio β.

• The energy balance equation with around flux G =0 can then be Written as

• The Bowen ratio is calculated by coupting the transport, equations, for vapour and heat,
• That is.

• Where Cp=specific heat at constant pressure

• Kn= heat diffusivity
• Using measurements of qv and T made at two elevations the Z1, and Z2 and assuming the
transport rate is constant between these two level
• Dividing the equation (3) by and substituting 0.622e/p for qv provides the Bowen ratio β as
 
• Or,

• Where is psychrometric constant

• Kn/ Kw =1 is assumed.
• If the two levels 1 and 2 are taken as evaporative Surface and in the overlying air stream,
respectively then it can be shown. that evaporation rate Er Computed from energy method and
evaporation rate Ea computed from aerodynamic method can be combined to yield a weighted
estimate of E by

• Where, is the gradient of Saturate vapour pressure Curve at temp Ta.

• The combination method of calculating evaporation from meteorological data is most accurate
when all the required data is available and assumptions are satisfied.
• This method is well suited for application to small areas with detailed climatological data.
• For evaporation over large areas, energy balance equation is most accurate.
• Reservoir Evaporation and method of its reduction: Go through the
article 3.6 of K. Subramanya book for various method.
• for reduction of evaporation from reservoirs like Reduction of surface
area, Mechanical Covers, chemical films ( hexadecanol, octadecanol),
etc.
• Evapotranspiration: Transpiration is a process by which water leaves the
body of a living plant and reaches the atmosphere as Water vapour.
• The factors affecting the transpiration are. atmospheric vapour pressure,
temperature, wind, light intensity, plant characteristics. However a major
difference exists between transpiration and evaporation.
• Transpiration is confined to daylight hours and rate of transpiration
depends on growth period of plant. Evaporation on the other hand,
continues all through day and nights although at different rates.
• while transpiration takes plates land area in which plants stand also
lose moisture by the evaporation of water from soil and water bodies.
This process in combinations is known as evapotranspiration or
consumptive use of water.
• If sufficient moisture is always available to meet the needs of
vegetation fully covering the area, the resulting evapotranspiration is
called potential evapotranspiration (PET).
• The real evapotranspiration occuring in specific situation is called
actual evapotranspiration(AET).
• for other details see on art. 3.8 of Engineer hydrology of K.
Subramanya.
  Measurement of Evapotranspiration:
• There are two methods of measuring the evapotranspiration.
(1) Lysimeter: It is special water tight tank, containing a black soil and set in a
field of growing plants. The plants grown in lysimeter are the same as in
surrounding field.
• Evapotranspiration is estimated in terms of the amount of water required to
maintain constant moisture Conditions within the tank measured
volumetrically or gravimetrically through an arrangement made in the
lysimeter.
(2) Field plots: In special plots all the element of water budget in a known time
interval are measured and evapotranspiration is determined as:
• Evapotranspiration= precipitation + irrigation input. – runoff - increase in Soil
storage-ground water loss
• for details see art 3.9 if Engineering hydrology k.Subramanya.
• Evapotranspiration Equations: The lack of reliable field data has given
rise to use of climatological data to predict PET.
• Here one Equations are given
• Penman's Equation : Penmann equation is based on sound
theoretical reasoning and is obtained by combination of energy
balance and mass-transfer method.

• For details See the art. 3.10 of Engineering hydrology K. Subramanya,

  Initial loss:
• In precipitation reaching the Surface of a Catchment two process, though small in
magnitude, occur which reduces the runoff magnitude and this act as abstractions.
• These are interception and depression storage, and together they are called initial
loss.
• a) Interception: A part of the precipitation, before reaching the ground is Caught by
the vegetation and subsequently evaporated.
• The volume of water so cought is called interception.
• for details see art 3.12 of Engineering hydrology by K. Subramanya )
• b) Depression storage: When the precipitation reaches the ground, first it fill up all
depressions before it can flow over the surface.
• The volume of water trapped in these depressions is called depression storage.
This amount is eventually lost to runoff through processes of infiltration and
evaporation.
• for details see art 3.13 of Engineering hydrology by K. Subramanya )
 Subsurface Water
• Unsaturated flow: Subsurface flow process and zones in which they
occur is shown in the figure below.
• Three important processes are infiltration, soil moisture, subsurface
flow or unsaturated flow through soil or groundwater flow or
saturated flow through soil or rock strata which permits water flow
through porous media, flow as unsaturated.
• when porous medium still has some of its voids occupied by air and
saturated. when the voids are filled with water.
• We define Soil moisture Contest as
 • Continuity Equation: Consider the following control volume of an
Unsaturated soil.

volume of water contained=

Flow of water is Only in z direction, and measured by a Darcy flux q = Q/A.
In Reynold's transport equation B is the mass of soil water hence
• So,

• The first term in above equation is

• And the second term is

• So equation (1) becomes

• This is the continuity equation for 1- D unsteady flow in a unsaturated parous

media.
• Momentum Equation: Consider the flow in vertical direction, and denote total
head of the flow by h. So Sf in Darcy law is and so Darcy law can be written as

• A water molecule, which escapes from a horizontal free Surface to vapour has
to overcome the attraction of the molecule that surround it.
• This requires the input of latent heat of evaporation In partially saturated soil.
the forces to be overcome are increased by the Curvature of an interface
between adsorbed film of water and air-Water vapour mixture and the
adsorptive forces of solids.
Therefore, the vapour pressure in the atmosphere within the voids always less than over a free horizontal
water surface at the same temperature and humidity conditions.
The following figure shows the Variation of relative humidity and vapour pressure with moisture content.
• Darcy law describes a steady uniform flow of Constant velocity in
which the net force. On any fluid element is zero.
• for saturated flow only two forces friction and gravity are involved but
for unsaturated flow the suction force binding water to soil particle
through Surface tension must also be included.
• When void spaces are only partially filled with water, the water is attracted to
particle surfaces through electrostatic forces, This surface adhesion draws
Water up around the particle surfaces, leaving the air in the centre of voids.
• As more water is added to the parous media air exits and free Surface
diminishes, until medium is saturated with no free surfaces and therefore no
soil suction force.
• The head h of the water is measured in dimensions of height. In an unsaturated
porous medium.
• The part of the total energy possessed by the fluid due to soil suction forces is
referred to as suction head ψ.
• From proceeding discussion it is evident that suction head will vary with
moisture content of the medium as shown in the figure below for a clay soil
which also shows the variation of hydraulic Conductivity K with moisture
content
The total head h is sum of the suction head, and gravity heads

 
 
 
• So Darcy law in unsaturated medium becomes

• Where D is the soil moisture diffusivity K()

• which has the dimension [L2/T]
• Substituting this result into continuity equation.

• Which are one dimensional form of Richard’s equation.

THANK YOU