Relational Database Concept
• Dr. E. F. Codd proposed the relational model for
database systems in 1970.
• It is the basis for the relational database
management system (RDBMS).
• The relational model consists of the
following:
– Collection of objects or relations
– Set of operators to act on the relations
– Data integrity for accuracy and
consistency
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Definition of a Relational Database
A relational database is a collection of relations or
two-dimensional tables.
Oracle
server
Table name: EMPLOYEES Table name: DEPARTMENTS
… …
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Data Models
Model of
system
Entity model of
in client’s
client’s model
mind
Table model
of entity model Oracle
server
Tables on disk
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Entity Relationship Model
• Create an entity relationship diagram from
business specifications or narratives:
EMPLOYEE DEPARTMENT
assigned to
#* number #* number
* name * name
job title composed of location
o o
• Scenario
– “. . . Assign one or more employees to a
department . . .”
– “. . . Some departments do not yet have assigned
employees . . .”
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Entity Relationship
Modeling Conventions
Entity Attribute
• Singular, unique name • Singular name
• Uppercase • Lowercase
• Soft box • Mandatory marked with *
• Synonym in parentheses • Optional marked with “o”
EMPLOYEE DEPARTMENT
#* number assigned to
#* number
* name * name
job title composed of location
o o
Unique identifier (UID)
Primary marked with “#”
Secondary marked with “(#)”
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Relating Multiple Tables
• Each row of data in a table is uniquely identified by a
primary key (PK).
• You can logically relate data from multiple tables using
foreign keys (FK).
Table name: DEPARTMENTS
Table name: EMPLOYEES
…
Primary key Foreign key Primary key
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Relational Database Properties
A relational database:
• Can be accessed and modified by executing
structured query language (SQL)
statements
• Contains a collection of tables with no physical
pointers
• Uses a set of operators
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Communicating with an RDBMS
Using SQL
SQL statement is entered. Statement is sent to
Oracle server.
SELECT department_name
FROM departments;
Oracle
server
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Oracle’s Relational Database Management
System
Oracle
server
User tables Data
dictionary
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SQL Statements
SELECT
INSERT Data manipulation language (DML)
UPDATE
DELETE
CREATE
MERGE
ALTER
DROP Data definition language (DDL)
RENAME
TRUNCATE
COMMENT
GRANT Data control language (DCL)
REVOKE
COMMIT
ROLLBACK Transaction control
SAVEPOINT
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Tables Used in the Course
EMPLOYEES
DEPARTMENTS JOB_GRADES
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Cont..
• Oracle Database 10g is the database for grid
computing.
• The database is based on the object relational
database management system.
• Relational databases are composed of relations,
managed by relational operations, and governed by
data integrity constraints.
• With the Oracle server, you can store and manage
information by using the SQL language and
PL/SQL engine.
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Retrieving Data Using
the SQL SELECT
Statement
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Capabilities of SQL SELECT
Statements
Projection Selection
Table 1 Table 1
Join
Table 1 Table 2
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Basic SELECT
Statement
SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expression [alias],...}
FROM table;
• SELECT identifies the columns to be displayed.
• FROM identifies the table containing those
columns.
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Selecting All Columns
SELECT *
FROM departments;
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Selecting Specific Columns
SELECT department_id, location_id
FROM departments;
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Writing SQL Statements
• SQL statements are not case sensitive.
• SQL statements can be on one or more lines.
• Keywords cannot be abbreviated or split
across lines.
• Clauses are usually placed on separate
lines.
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Arithmetic Expressions
Create expressions with number and date data by using
arithmetic operators.
Operator Description
+ Add
- Subtract
* Multiply
/ Divide
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Using Arithmetic Operators
SELECT last_name, salary, salary + 300
salary*300
FROM employees;
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Operator Precedence
SELECT last_name, salary, 12*salary+100
FROM employees; 1
…
SELECT last_name, salary, 12*(salary+100)
FROM employees;
2
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Defining a Null Value
• A null is a value that is unavailable, unassigned,
unknown, or inapplicable.
• A null is not the same as a zero or a blank
space.
SELECT last_name, job_id, commission_pct
salary,commission_pct FROM
employees;
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Null Values
in Arithmetic Expressions
Arithmetic expressions containing a null value evaluate to
null.
SELECT last_name, 12*salary*commission_pct
FROM employees;
……
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Defining a Column Alias
A column alias:
• Renames a column heading
• Is useful with calculations
• Immediately follows the column name (There can
also be the optional AS keyword between the
column name and alias.)
• Requires double quotation marks if it contains
spaces or special characters or if it is case
sensitive
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Using Column Aliases
SELECT last_name AS name, commission_pct comm
FROM employees;
SELECT last_name "Name" , salary*12 "Annual Salary"
FROM employees;
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Concatenation Operator
A concatenation operator:
• Links columns or character strings to other
columns
• Is represented by two vertical bars (||)
• Creates a resultant column that is a character
expression
SELECT last_name||job_id AS "Employees"
FROM employees;
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Literal Character Strings
• A literal is a character, a number, or a date that is
included in the SELECT statement.
• Date and character literal values must be enclosed
by single quotation marks.
• Each character string is output once for each
row returned.
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Using Literal Character Strings
SELECT last_name ||' is a '||job_id
AS "Employee Details"
FROM employees;
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Duplicate Rows
The default display of queries is all rows, including
duplicate rows.
SELECT department_id
FROM employees; 1
…
SELECT DISTINCT department_id
FROM employees; 2
…
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Displaying Table Structure
DESCRIBE command to display the structure of a
table:
DESC[RIBE] tablename
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Displaying Table Structure
DESCRIBE employees
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Thank you
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