CS 623 – Database Management Systems

Session 4 Agenda

 Chapter 3 - Individual Laboratory Exercises Questions

 Chapter 3 - Team Assignments Questions
 Oracle Installation Questions
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model
 Chapter 4 - Individual Laboratory Exercises Questions
 Chapter 4 - Team Assignment Review
 Team time
 CS 623 – Database Management Systems

Reminder on Team Participation and Participation Points

I have received some complaints regarding lack of participation from

some team members.

 Team members are expected to contribute equally on team

assignments.
 I cannot award participation points for any weeks where team
members have not participated.
 In order to receive participation points for that week you would need
to contact your team and coordinate with your team to make up the
time on another week. The team would then need to confirm your
participation to receive those participation points.
 CS 623 – Database Management Systems

Reminder on Late Assignments

A fair amount of students did not submit their Chapter 3 laboratory

exercise assignment.

Assignments are due on the dates specified in the syllabus.

Please ensure that you submit individual and team assignments on

time so weekly assignments do not conflict with each other and you
have enough time to complete each assignment.

As indicated in the syllabus, late assignments will be penalized with a

five (5) point deduction for each day late unless arrangements are
made prior to the due date.
Chapter 4: The Relational Model
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Relational Model

The relational model replaced earlier hierarchical and network

database systems.
 Earlier models were based on filesystems
 Therefore, the databases created using them required that the
application programs contain details about the layout of data in the
database.
 As a result, whenever the database was reorganized, the
applications had to be rewritten.
 There was no data independence.
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Advantages of Relational Model

The relational model removed such details from the application

providing a logical view and creating data independence.
 Based on mathematical notion of relation
 Can use power of mathematical abstraction
 Can develop body of results using theorem and proof method of
mathematics
 Can use expressive, exact mathematical notation
 Theory provides tools for improving design
 Basic structure is simple, easy to understand
 Data operations are easy to express, using a few powerful
commands
 Operations do not require user to know storage structures used
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Relational Data Structures

The relational model is based on the concept of a relation, which is

physically represented as a table or two-dimension array. In this
model:
 Tables are related to one another
 Table hold information about the objects to be represented in the
database
 Rows (tuples) correspond to individual records
 Columns correspond to attributes
 A column contains values from one domain
 A domain are the atomic (acceptable) values that a column is
allowed to contain.
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Properties of a Table

 Each cell contains at most one value

 Each column has a distinct name which is the name of the attribute it
represents
 Values in a column all come from the same domain
 Each tuple (row) is distinct – no duplicate tuples
 Order of tuples is immaterial
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Example of a Relational Model

 Student table tells facts about students

 Faculty table shows facts about faculty
 Class table shows facts about classes, including what faculty
member teaches each class
 Enroll table relates students to classes
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

University Sample Database

Student Table Faculty Table

Enroll Table

Class Table
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Mathematical Relations

To understand the strict meaning of the term relation, we need to

review some notions from mathematics
 For two sets D1 and D2, we could form the Cartesian product (cross-
join): D1 x D2 , which is the set of all ordered pairs where the first
element is from D1 and the second from D2
 A relation is any subset of the Cartesian product
 Could form Cartesian product of 3 sets; relation is any subset of the
ordered triples so formed
 Could extend to n sets, using n-tuples
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Database Relations

When applying these concepts to databases:

 A relation schema, R, is a set of attributes {A1, A2,…,An} with their
corresponding domains {D1, D2,…Dn}
 A relation r on relation schema R is a set of mappings from the attribute
names to their corresponding domains
 r is a set of n-tuples (A1:d1, A2:d2, …, An:dn) such that
d1ϵ D1, d2 ϵ D2 , …, dn ϵ Dn
Each element in one of these n-tuples consists of an attribute and a value of that
attribute.
 In a table to represent the relation, we list the attribute names as column
headings, and let the (d1, d2, …dn) become the n-tuples, the rows of the table
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Properties of Relations

Most of the characteristics specified for tables result from the properties of
mathematical relations.
 Degree of the relation is the number of attributes (columns)
 2 attributes: binary; 3 attributes: ternary; n attributes: n-ary
 Ex: the degree of student is 5 because it has 5 columns.
 And each row of the table is a 5-tuple - containing 5 values
 A property of the intension – does not change unless database design changes
 Cardinality of the relation: the number of tuples (rows)
 Changes as tuples are added or deleted
 A property of the extension – changes often
 The relational model allows us to define Keys and integrity constraints to
enforce and ensure data integrity.
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Relation Keys

Relations never have duplicate tuples, therefore, you can always tell
tuples apart. This implies there is always an attribute or set of
attributes that make the tuples distinct.
 Superkey is a set of attributes that uniquely identifies tuples
 Candidate key is the minimum set of attributes which can uniquely
identify a tuple
 Primary key is the candidate key chosen for unique identification of
tuples
 Foreign key is an attribute or combination of attributes that is the
primary key of some relation (called its home relation)
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Integrity Constraints

It is important to preserve integrity, which means correctness and internal consistency

of the data in the database
 Integrity constraints - rules or restrictions that apply to all instances of the
database
 Enforcing integrity constraints ensures that any data entered creates a legal instance
of the database.
Types of constraints:
 Domain constraint: limits set of values for attributes
 Entity integrity: no attribute of a primary key can have a null value
 Referential integrity: each foreign key value must match the primary key value of
some tuple in its home relation or be completely null
 General constraints or business rules: enforced by database whenever changes
are made to the data
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Representing Relational Database Schemas

 Relational database can have any number of relation schemas

 For each schema, list name of relation followed by list of attributes in
parentheses
 Underline primary key in each relation schema
 Indicate foreign keys in italics and use arrows to point to the primary
keys that they refer to.
 Example: University database schema
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Types of Relational Data Manipulation Languages

There are a variety of languages used by relational database management systems.

Types include:
 Procedural or proscriptive – user tells system how to manipulate data - e.g.
relational algebra
 Non-procedural or declarative – user tells system what data is needed, not how
to get it. Ex: relational calculus, SQL
Other types:
 Graphical: user provides illustration of what data is needed Ex: Query By
Example (QBE)
 Fourth-generation (4GL): uses user-friendly environment to generate custom
applications
 Natural language: 5GL accepts restricted version of English or other natural
language
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Relational Algebra

Relational Algebra is a theoretical language with operators that apply to

one or two relations to produce another relation
 Therefore, both the operands and results are tables
 Can assign name to resulting table (rename)
 SELECT, PROJECT, JOIN allow many data retrieval operations
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

SELECT Operation

The SELECT command is applied to a single table, returns rows that

meet a specified predicate, copies them to new table
 Returns a horizontal subset of original table
 SELECT tableName WHERE condition [GIVING newTableName]
 Symbolically, [newTableName = ]  predicate (table-name)
 Predicate is called a theta-condition, as in  (tablename)
 Result table is horizontal subset of operand
 Predicate can have operators
 <, <=, , =, =, <>,  (AND),  (OR),  (NOT)
 Ex: select student where studId = ‘S1013’ GIVING Result

stuId lastName firstName major credits

S1013 McCarthy Owen Math 0
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

PROJECT Operation

The PROJECT command also operates on single table

 Returns unique values in a column or combination of columns
 PROJECT tableName OVER (colName,...,colName)
[GIVING newTableName]
 Symbolically
[newTableName =]  colName,...,colName (tableName)
 Can compose SELECT and PROJECT, using result of first as
argument for second
 Ex: PROJECT class OVER (facid, room) GIVING Result
facId room
F101 H221
F105 M110
F115 H221
F110 H225
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Product, A x B
 Binary operation – applies to two tables
 Cartesian product; cross-product of A and B; written A x B
 Concatenates all rows of A with all rows of B
 Columns are the columns of A followed by the columns of B
 Degree of result is deg of A + deg of B
 Cardinality of result is (card of A) * (card of B)
 Can be formed by nested loops algorithm\
 Example Student x Enroll
stuId lastName firstName major credits classNumber grade
S1001 Smith Tom History 90 HST205A C
S1001 Smith Tom History 90 ART103A A
S1002 Chin Ann Math 36 MTH103C B
S1002 Chin Ann Math 36 CSC201A F
S1002 Chin Ann Math 36 ART103A D
S1010 Burns Edward Art 63 MTH103C  
S1010 Burns Edward Art 63 ART103A  
S1020 Rivera Jane CSC 15 MTH101B A
S1020 Rivera Jane CSC 15 CSC201A B
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Theta Join and Equi Join

 Theta join allows you to merge two tables based on the condition
represented by a theta (Θ)
Ex: selecting the tuples from student and enroll where credits is greater
than 50.

 Equi Join can be formed when tables have common columns. We

then compare each tuple and only retrieve where the values of those
columns are equal.
Ex: selecting the tuples from student and enroll where they have
matching stuid
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Natural Join

 Same as Equijoin, but we drop repeated column(s) from result.

Ex: for the join between student and enroll, we only show stuId once
 symbolized by |x| as in
[newTableName = ] Student |x| Enroll
or
Student JOIN Enroll [GIVING newTableName]
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Left Semi Join

Left Semi Join A |x B

 take the natural join of A and B and then project the result onto the
attributes of A
 result is just those tuples of A that participate in the natural join
Ex: the left semijoin of Student and Enroll is written:
Student LEFT SEMIJOIN Enroll
The following just shows the rows of Students that have the same Stuid
matches in the Enroll table:
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Right Semi Join

Right Semi Join A x| B

 take the natural join of A and B and then project the result onto the
attributes of B
 Result is just those tuples of B that participate in the natural join
Ex: the right semijoin of Student and Enroll is written:
Student RIGHT SEMIJOIN Enroll.
This is the projection onto the Enroll table of the natural join, therefore,
those tuples of Enroll that participate in the join (namely, all of them
since this is a child table).
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Outer Join

 Left Outer Join of A and B

 Form natural join, but add rows for all the tuples of A with no
matches in B
 Fill in the B attributes for those unmatched tuples with null values
 Right Outer Join of A and B
 Add unmatched B tuples to natural join, filling in null values for the A
attributes
 Full Outer Join of A and B
 Add unmatched tuples for both A and B, filling in null values for
unmatched tuples on both sides
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

SET Operations

For a set operation to be possible, tables must be union compatible – meaning

have same schema

 A UNION B: set of tuples in either or both of A and B,

written A  B
Ex: It shows the results of both tables removing any duplicates

 A INTERSECTION B: set of tuples in both A and B simultaneously, written A

∩B
 Ex: It only shows data from both tables where the stuid exists in both.

 A MINUS B: set of tuples in A but not in B,

written A - B
Ex: is used to return all rows in the first SELECT table that are not returned by
the second table.
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

SET Operation Example

Faculty Table 1 UNION

facId name department rank
facId name Department rank
F101 Adams Art Professor
F101 Adams Art Professor
F105 Tanaka CSC Instructor
F105 Tanaka CSC Instructor F110 Byrne Math Assistant
F221 Smith CSC Professor F115 Smith History Associate
F221 Smith CSC Professor

Faculty Table 2 INTERSECTION

facId name department rank facId name Department rank
F101 Adams Art Professor F101 Adams Art Professor
F110 Byrne Math Assistant F221 Smith CSC Professor
F115 Smith History Associate
F221 Smith CSC Professor
MINUS
facId name department rank
F105 Tanaka CSC Instructor
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Views

An external view is the structure of the database as it appears to a user

 Views act as a window into a base table (subset)
 Can contain data from more than one table
 Can contain calculated data
 Can hide portions of database from users
 Can rename attributes for users
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Mapping ER Diagrams to Relational Schema

An E-R diagram can be converted to a relational model fairly easily.

 Each strong entity set becomes a table (rectangle)

 Non-composite, single-valued attributes become attributes of table

(ovals)
 Composite attributes: either make the composite a single attribute or
use individual attributes for components, ignoring the composite –
address or break into street, city, state, zip
 Multi-valued attributes: remove them to a new table along with the
primary key of the original table; also keep key in original table
 Weak entity sets become tables-add primary key of owner entity
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Mapping ER Diagrams to Relational Schema (Con’t)

 Binary Relationships:
 For 1:M - place primary key of A (the 1 side) in table B (the many
side) where it becomes the foreign key
 1:1- use either key as foreign key in the other table
 M:M-create a relationship table with primary keys of related
entities, along with an y relationship attributes
 Ternary or higher degree relationships: construct relationship table of
keys, along with any relationship attributes
 Recursive relationship depends on the cardinality:
 use foreign key if 1:M
 use relationship table if M:M
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Relational Schema - University Example

Chapter 4 Questions?
 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Chapter 4: Individual Laboratory Exercises Assignment

Step 4.1 - Examine the following ER diagram for CustomerOrder

example, which also appears in Figure 4.9 (located in the textbook)

Step 4.2 - Write a relational schema for this E-R diagram.

Underline the primary keys, show the foreign keys in italics, and draw
arrows from the foreign keys to the primary keys they refer to.
Use the guidelines presented in Section 4.7 and Figure 4.7 of the
textbook.

Steps 4.3 – 4.6 – Ignore.

 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Chapter 4: Individual Laboratory Exercises Assignment (Con’t)

 Chapter 4: The Relational Model

Chapter 4: Team Assignment

Step 4.1 - Map the E-R Diagram developed at the end of Chapter 3 to a
relational model, using the guidelines presented in Section 4.7 and
Figure 4.7 of the textbook.

For this assignment, submit your E-R Diagram (from chapter 3) and
your relational model (from chapter 4)