Computer Network

3150710

Shehnaz Patel
Assistant Professor
Computer Engineering Department
SVMIT, Bharuch.
Email: [Link]@[Link]

Introduction 1
Chapter 1
Introduction Computer
Networking: A
Top Down
Approach
6th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Addison-Wesley

Introduction 1-2
Chapter 1: Introduction
 Approach: overview:
 use Internet as  What’s the Internet?
example  What’s a protocol?
 Network edge; hosts, access net,
physical media
 Network core: packet/circuit
switching, Internet structure
 Performance: loss, delay, throughput
 Protocol layers, service models
 History

Introduction 1-3
Chapter 1: Roadmap
1.1 What is the Internet?
1.2 Network edge
 End systems, Access Networks, Links
1.3 Network core
 Packet switching, Circuit switching, Network structure
1.4 Delay, Loss, Throughput in Networks
1.5 Protocol layers, Service models
1.7 History

Introduction 1-4
What’s the Internet: “ nuts and bolts” view
PC  millions mobile network
of connected
server computing devices:
 hosts = end systems global ISP
wireless
laptop  running network apps
smartphone
home
 communication links network
regional ISP
wireless
 fiber, copper, radio,
links satellite
wired
links  transmission rate:
bandwidth

 Packetswitches: forward
router packets (chunks of data) institutional
network
 routers and switches
Introduction 1-5
What’s the Internet: “ nuts and bolts” view
mobile network
 Internet: “ network of networks”
 Interconnected ISPs
global ISP
 protocols control sending,
receiving of msgs
 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype, 802.11 home
network
 Internet standards regional ISP
 RFC: Request for comments
 IETF: Internet Engineering Task
Force

institutional
network

Introduction 1-6
What’s the Internet: a service view
mobile network
 Infrastructure that provides
services to applications: global ISP
 Web, VoIP, email, games, e-
commerce, social nets, … home
 provides programming network
regional ISP
interface to apps
 hooks that allow sending
and receiving app programs
to “ connect” to Internet
 provides service options,
analogous to postal service
institutional
network

Introduction 1-7
What’s a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
 “ what’s the time?”  machines rather than
 “ I have a question” humans
 introductions  all communication activity
in Internet governed by
protocols
… specific msgs sent
… specific actions taken
when msgs received, or protocols define format,
other events
order of msgs sent and
received among network
entities, and actions taken
on msg transmission,
receipt Introduction 1-8
What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
request
Hi TCP connection
response
Got the
time? Get [Link]
2:00
<file>
time

Introduction 1-9
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.7 history

Introduction 1-10
A closer look at network structure:
 network edge: mobile network
 hosts: clients and servers
 servers often in data centers global ISP

home
 access networks, network
regional ISP
physical media: wired,
wireless communication
links
 network core:
 interconnected routers
 network of networks institutional
network

Introduction 1-11
Access networks and physical media
Q: How to connect end
systems to edge router?
 residential access nets
 institutional access
networks (school, company)
 mobile access networks
keep in mind:
 bandwidth (bits per second)
of access network?
 shared or dedicated?

Introduction 1-12
Access net: digital subscriber line (DSL)
central office telephone
network

DSL splitter
modem DSLAM
Digital
Subscriber ISP
voice, data transmitted
at different frequencies over Line
dedicated line to central office Access
Multiplexer

 use existing telephone line to central office DSLAM

 data over DSL phone line goes to Internet
 voice over DSL phone line goes to telephone net
 < 2.5 Mbps upstream transmission rate (typically < 1 Mbps)
 < 24 Mbps downstream transmission rate (typically < 10 Mbps)
Introduction 1-13
Access net: cable network
cable headend

cable splitter cable modem

modem CMTS termination system

data, TV transmitted at different

frequencies over shared cable ISP
distribution network

 HFC: hybrid fiber coax

 asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream transmission rate, 2
Mbps upstream transmission rate
 network of cable, fiber attaches homes to ISP router
 homes share access network to cable headend
 unlike DSL, which has dedicated access to central office
Introduction 1-14
 Access net: home network
wireless
devices

to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box

cable or DSL modem

wireless access router, firewall, NAT

point (54 Mbps)
wired Ethernet (100 Mbps)

Introduction 1-15
Enterprise access networks (Ethernet)

institutional link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional router

Ethernet institutional mail,

switch web servers

 typically used in companies, universities, etc

 10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps transmission rates
 today, end systems typically connect into Ethernet switch

Introduction 1-16
Wireless access networks
 shared wireless access network connects end system to router
 via base station aka “ access point”

wireless LANs: wide-area wireless access

 within building (100 ft)  provided by telco (cellular)
 802.11b/g (WiFi): 11, 54 operator, 10’s km
Mbps transmission rate  between 1 and 10 Mbps
 3G, 4G: LTE

to Internet

to Internet

Introduction 1-17
Host: sends packets of data
host sending function:
takes application message
breaks into smaller chunks, two packets,
known as packets, of length L L bits each
bits
transmits packet into access
network at transmission rate R 2 1
 link transmission rate, R: link transmission rate
aka link capacity, aka host
link bandwidth

packet time needed to L (bits)

transmission = transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)
Introduction 1-18
Physical media
 bit: propagates between
transmitter/receiver pairs
 physical link: what lies twisted pair (TP)
between transmitter & receiver  two insulated copper wires
 guided media:  Category 5: 100 Mbps, 1
Gpbs Ethernet
 signals propagate in solid  Category 6: 10Gbps
media: copper, fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio

Introduction 1-19
Physical media: coax, fiber
coaxial cable: fiber optic cable:
 two concentric copper  glass fiber carrying light
conductors pulses, each pulse a bit
 bidirectional  high-speed operation:
 broadband:  high-speed point-to-point
 multiple channels on cable transmission (e.g., 10’s-100’s
Gpbs transmission rate)
 HFC
 low error rate:
 repeaters spaced far apart
 immune to electromagnetic
noise

Introduction 1-20
Physical media: radio
 signal carried in radio link types:
electromagnetic spectrum  terrestrial microwave
 no physical “ wire”  e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels
 bidirectional  LAN (e.g., WiFi)
 propagation environment  11Mbps, 54 Mbps
effects:  wide-area (e.g., cellular)
 reflection  3G cellular: ~ few Mbps
 obstruction by objects  satellite
 interference  Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
multiple smaller channels)
 280 msec end-end delay
 geosynchronous versus low
altitude(Low Earth Orbiting-LEO)
satellites

Introduction 1-21
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.7 history

Introduction 1-22
The network core
 mesh of interconnected
routers
 packet-switching: hosts
break application-layer
messages into packets
 forward packets from one
router to the next, across
links on path from source
to destination
 each packet transmitted at
full link capacity

Introduction 1-23
Packet-switching: store-and-forward

L bits
per packet

3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

 takes L/R seconds to transmit one-hop numerical

(push out) L-bit packet into example:
link at R bps
 L = 7.5 Mbits
 store and forward: entire
packet must arrive at router  R = 1.5 Mbps

before it can be transmitted  one-hop transmission

on next link delay = 5 sec
 end-end delay = 2L/R (assuming
zero propagation delay)
Introduction 1-24
Packet Switching: queueing delay, loss

R = 100 Mb/s C
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

queuing and loss:

 If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate of link
for a period of time:
 packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link
 packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills up

Introduction 1-25
 Two key network-core functions
routing: determines source- forwarding: move packets
destination route taken by from router’s input to
packets appropriate router output
 routing algorithms

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3 1
0101 2
0111 2 3 2
1001 1
11
01

dest address in arriving

packet’s header
Introduction 4-26
Alternative core: circuit switching
end-end resources allocated to,
reserved for “ call” between
source & dest:
 In diagram, each link has four
circuits.
 call gets 2nd circuit in top link
and 1st circuit in right link.
 dedicated resources: no sharing
 circuit-like (guaranteed)
performance
 circuit segment idle if not used by
call (no sharing)
 Commonly used in traditional
telephone networks

Introduction 1-27
Circuit switching: FDM versus TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
Introduction 1-28
Packet switching versus circuit switching
packet switching allows more users to use network!

example:
1 Mb/s link
each user:
100 kb/s when “ active”
active 10% of time N
…..

users
circuit-switching: 1 Mbps link
10 users
packet switching: Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
with 35 users, probability > 10
active at same time is less Q: what happens if > 35 users ?
than .0004 *

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples Introduction 1-29
Internet structure: network of networks
 End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs (Internet
Service Providers)
 Residential, company and university ISPs
 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
 So that any two hosts can send packets to each other
 Resulting network of networks is very complex
 Evolution was driven by economics and national policies
 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current Internet
structure

Introduction 1-30
Internet structure: network of networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them
together?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

Introduction 1-31
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access
net
… … net

access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP

…

…
to each other directly doesn’t

…
access access
…

net
scale: O(N2) connections. net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
…

… net
access access …
net access net
net

Introduction 1-32
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to a global transit ISP?
Customer and provider ISPs have economic agreement.

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
global
access
net ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

Introduction 1-33
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors
….

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A
…

…
access access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

Introduction 1-34
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors
…. which must be interconnected
Internet exchange point
…
access
access
access
net net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
peering link
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

Introduction 1-35
Internet structure: network of networks
… and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to
ISPS

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

Introduction 1-36
Internet structure: network of networks
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft,
Akamai ) may run their own network, to bring services, content
close to end users
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
Content provider network
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP B
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

Introduction 1-37
 Internet structure: network of networks
Content Provider
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP [Link]

IX IX IX
P P P
Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

 at center: small # of well-connected large networks

 “ tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT), national &
international coverage
 content provider network (e.g, Google): private network that connects it
data centers to Internet, often bypassing tier-1, regional ISPs Introduction 1-38
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.7 history

Introduction 1-39
How do loss and delay occur?
packets queue in router buffers
 packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds output link
capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers

Introduction 1-40
Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dproc: nodal processing dqueue: queueing delay

 check bit errors  time waiting at output link
 determine output link for transmission
 typically < msec  depends on congestion
level of router
Introduction 1-41
Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dtrans: transmission delay: dprop: propagation delay:

 L: packet length (bits)  d: length of physical link
 R: link bandwidth (bps)  s: propagation speed in medium
 dtrans = L/R (~2x108 m/sec)
dtrans and dprop  dprop = d/s
very different
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on trans vs. prop delay Introduction 1-42
Caravan analogy
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth

 cars “ propagate” at  time to “ push” entire

100 km/hr caravan through toll
 toll booth takes 12 sec to booth onto highway =
service car (bit transmission 12*10 = 120 sec
time)  time for last car to
 car~bit; caravan ~ packet propagate from 1st to
 Q: How long until caravan is 2nd toll both:
lined up before 2nd toll 100km/(100km/hr)= 1
booth? hr
 A: 62 minutes
Introduction 1-43
Caravan analogy (more)
100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth

 suppose cars now “ propagate” at 1000 km/hr

 and suppose toll booth now takes one min to service a car
 Q: Will cars arrive to 2nd booth before all cars serviced at first
booth?
 A: Yes! after 7 min, 1st car arrives at second booth; three
cars still at 1st booth.

Introduction 1-44
Packet loss
 queue preceding link in buffer has finite capacity
 packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by
source end system, or not at all

buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss Introduction 1-45
Throughput
 throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits
transferred between sender/receiver
 instantaneous: rate at given point in time
 average: rate over longer period of time

server,
server withbits
sends linkpipe
capacity
that can carry linkpipe
capacity
that can carry
file of into
(fluid) F bits
pipe fluid at rate
R bits/sec fluid at rate
s R bits/sec
to send to client c
Rs bits/sec) Rc bits/sec)

Introduction 1-46
Throughput (more)
 Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

 Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck
link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput
Introduction 1-47
Throughput: Internet scenario

 per-connection end-
end throughput: Rs
min(Rc,Rs,R/10) Rs Rs
 in practice: R or R
c s
is often bottleneck R

Rc Rc

Rc

10 connections (fairly) share

backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec
Introduction 1-48
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.7 history

Introduction 1-49
Protocol “ layers”
Networks are complex,
with many “pieces”:
 hosts Question:
 routers is there any hope of
 links of various organizing structure of
media network?
 applications
 protocols …. or at least our discussion
of networks?
 hardware,
software

Introduction 1-50
Organization of air travel
ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

 a series of steps

Introduction 1-51
Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

layers: each layer implements a service

 via its own internal-layer actions
 relying on services provided by layer below

Introduction 1-52
Why layering?
dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance, updating of
system
 change of implementation of layer’s service transparent
to rest of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect rest of
system
 layering considered harmful?

Introduction 1-53
Internet protocol stack
 application: supporting network
applications
 FTP, SMTP, HTTP application
 transport: process-process data
transfer transport
 TCP, UDP
 network: routing of datagrams from network
source to destination
 IP, routing protocols link
 link: data transfer between
neighboring network elements physical
 Ethernet, 802.11 (WiFi), PPP
 physical: bits “ on the wire”
Introduction 1-54
ISO/OSI reference model
 presentation: allow applications
to interpret meaning of data, application
e.g., encryption, compression,
machine-specific conventions presentation
 session: synchronization, session
checkpointing, recovery of data transport
exchange
network
 Internet stack “ missing” these
layers! link
 these services, if needed, must be physical
implemented in application
 needed?

Introduction 1-55
 message M
source
application
Encapsulation
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application
Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical

Introduction 1-56
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.7 history

Introduction 1-57
Internet history
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
 1961: Kleinrock -  1972:
queueing theory shows  ARPAnet public demo
effectiveness of packet-  NCP (Network Control
switching Protocol) first host-host
 1964: Baran - packet- protocol
switching in military nets  first e-mail program
 1967: ARPAnet  ARPAnet has 15 nodes
conceived by Advanced
Research Projects
Agency
 1969: first ARPAnet
node operational

Introduction 1-58
Internet history
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets
 1970: ALOHAnet satellite
network in Hawaii Cerf and Kahn’s
 1974: Cerf and Kahn - internetworking principles:
architecture for interconnecting  minimalism, autonomy - no
networks internal changes required to
 1976: Ethernet at Xerox PARC interconnect networks
 best effort service model
 late70’s: proprietary
 stateless routers
architectures: DECnet, SNA,
XNA  decentralized control
 late 70’s: switching fixed length define today’s Internet
packets (ATM precursor) architecture
 1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes

Introduction 1-59
Internet history
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks
 1983: deployment of  new national networks:
TCP/IP Csnet, BITnet, NSFnet,
 1982: smtp e-mail Minitel
protocol defined  100,000 hosts connected
 1983: DNS defined for to confederation of
name-to-IP-address networks
translation
 1985: ftp protocol defined
 1988: TCP congestion
control

Introduction 1-60
Internet history
1990, 2000’s: commercialization, the Web, new apps
 early 1990’s: ARPAnet late 1990’s – 2000’s:
decommissioned  more killer apps: instant
 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on messaging, P2P file sharing
commercial use of NSFnet  network security to
(decommissioned, 1995) forefront
 early 1990s: Web  est. 50 million host, 100
 hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson million+ users
1960’s]  backbone links running at
 HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee Gbps
 1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
 late 1990’s:
commercialization of the Web

Introduction 1-61
Internet history
2005-present
 ~750 million hosts
 Smartphones and tablets
 Aggressive deployment of broadband access
 Increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless access
 Emergence of online social networks:
 Facebook: soon one billion users
 Service providers (Google, Microsoft) create their own
networks
 Bypass Internet, providing “ instantaneous” access to
search, emai, etc.
 E-commerce, universities, enterprises running their
services in “ cloud” (eg, Amazon EC2)

Introduction 1-62
Introduction: Summary
Covered a “ton” of material!
 Internet overview
 what’s a protocol?
 network edge, core, access
network
 packet-switching versus
circuit-switching
 Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay,
throughput
 layering, service models
 history

Introduction 1-63