COMMUNICATION

SKILLS
By

Mr P. Mbalamwezi

Humanities Office no. 209 A

 Introduction

 We learn basic communication skills by

observing other people and modelling our
behaviours based on what we see, hear,
read and write.

 We are also taught communication skills

directly through education for instance in
the home, at school, with friends etc and
by practicing these skills and having them
evaluated.
 Introduction
 As such Communication is a learned skill. Speaking,
listening, reading and writing and our ability to
understand verbal and nonverbal meanings are skills we
develop in various ways. As human beings we receive and
produce information/messages.

 As social beings, we use the communication process to

establish the connections with others upon which our
very survival depends.

 Communication is a process for which some of us have

more natural skills than others, but all of us have much to
learn to enhance effective communication.
Topic 1: The Communication Process

 Defining Communication
 Models of Communication
 The Elements of Communication
 Functions of Communication
 Types of Communication
 Forms of Communication
 Barriers to Effective Communication
 Communicating Effectively
Defining communication
 Etymologically, the word “communicate”
comes from the Latin term “communicare”
which means to impart, to participate, to
share or to make common.
 Key terms- impart endow
- participate be involved in an activity
- share/make common be part of smthng
 What is Communication?
 The Longman dict. of Conte. Eng. defines communication as:

The process by which people

exchange information or
express their
thoughts and feelings

Communication is a two-way process which involves:

• Listening to others (Receiving) message
• Asserting/Expressing (Sending)
Aluftekin (n.d) views communication

as the act or process of giving

or exchanging information,
signals, or messages as by
talk, gestures, or writing.
Clark & Clinton, (1994) define
Communication as

the social process by which

people in a specific context
construct meaning using
symbolic behaviours.
Key elements: human, contextual,
social process to form meaning and

symbolic.
Kadeghe (2002) perceives
Communication as:

the transfer of information to achieve a

goal. It means an act to elicit a response in
another end which can be through direct
action by the receiver or a mere acquisition
of understanding. The author further says
that Communication should be a two way
traffic in that a sender must get feedback.
Perspectives of Communication

Technical Definition
 It is the transmission of messages from
one person/place to another. It tells us
about the technical means/ machinery.

Process Definition
 It is a complex & dynamic process of
exchanging meaningful messages. It tells
us about interpretation & meaning.
Transactional Definition

 It is a transaction between participants during

which relationships develop. Participants are
mutually responsible for the outcome of the
communication as they transmit, create
meaning & elicit responses.
Models of Commun. Process
 A model is a consciously made sketch which
represents a reality in a simplified manner.
 Communication Process models can be
classified into 2
a) One way communication model
b) Two way communication model
Models of commun.process…
a) Linear/One way Communication models

Message
Source Channel Receiver

Noise
Shortcomings:
No feedback
Noise does not only occur in the channel
Shannon & Weaver’s Com. Model
(1949)
 These were telephone engineers thus, their
model reflected features of a telephone
technology.
A B C D E
Information M1 Transmitter signal Received Receiver M2 Destination
Source Signal

Noise
Source
Strengths of Shannon &
Weaver’s model
 The model contributes knowledge in the
communication process by responding to a
number of significant questions like:
a) Which kind of communication channel can
effect maximum communication?

b) How much of the transmitted signals get

destroyed by noise along the way and how
can that be avoided?
Strengths cont…

c) It better describes mass communication that

involves media like radio, television, lectures
that are indeed linear in nature. So we should
think of how we can improve to effective
communication.
Pitfalls of Linear models of
comm…
 Communication is not always in a linear
fashion as presented in the model

 Noise may not only occur in the channel

rather even in other elements of comm.
process like the sender, message, receiver
even the context.
 Feedback has been ignored though essential
in any effective communication.
Lasswell’s model of comm…
Lasswell was an american political scientist.
He described communication in the form of
questions. Since not in graphic form, it was
named ‘a formula’. He contended that for
communication to occur, five aspects are
depended upon:
Lasswell cont…
 Who(source/sender

 Says what(msg)

 In which channel(media/means

 To Whom(Receiver)

 With what effect? (techniques/strategies.

Lasswell’s cont…
Other scholars criticized the formula and added
up other components in a graphic form to be
model proper. Example Braddock (1958)
proposed two more qns to complete
lasswell’s :
a) For what Purpose
b) Under which circumstances

Braddock(ibid) presented through a figure in

boxes as seen below:
Lasswell’s model cont…
Through
Who Says What To Whom
which
(Sender) Message
Medium

Under What Circumstances?

For What Purpose?

With what Effects?

Complex/2 Ways Models of
Communication
 b) Two way comm. Model (Murphy, 1972)
Message:
Sender/ Channel/ Receiver/
verbal /
Encoder Medium Decorde
non verbal

Feeedback
______________________
Schramm’s model of comm…(1954)

 W. Schramm& Osgood were trying to criticize

and modify the previous linear models
especially Shannon and Weaver’s. (anti-
linearity)
 They pointed out that for communication to
occur, there must be Feedback. Thus, they
proposed a two way comm. Model in a
circular form.
Shramm’s Comm. Model…
 Unlike Shannon and Weaver who emhasized
on the media, these stressed on the
bahaviours of the main actors in the comm.
Process i. e the Sender and the Receiver.

Message

Encoder Decoder
Interpreter Interpreter
Decoder Encoder

Message
Shramm’s model cont…

 They treat encoder and decoder as

parties at per with identical functions
of encoding, decoding and
interpreting the msgs

 Though an improved model, it is not free

of criticism. Example, the feeling of
equality in communication as presented is
unlikely to be the case in all circumstances.
BERLO’S MODEL OF COMMUN.

 Berlo was a behavioural psychologist and the

scholar in the theory of communication.
 Effective communication occurs if
communicators consider; human behaviour
and their socio-cultural relationships.
 Contends that communication is contextualy
bound and such a context embodies at least 4
dimensions:
Berlo’s…
 Physical dimension : tangible environment
like classroom furniture, learning resources…

 Psychological dimension : Friendliness,

hostility...

 Social dimension : group norms, cultural

norms …
 Temporal dimension : day, night, seasons of
events …
Berlo’s model…
S M C R
Source Message Channel Receiver
Comm. Comm.
SEEING
skills skills


ATTI Element Structure
ATTI
HEARING

CO C
KNOW TOUCHING KNOW
 NT O
SOCIETAL SMELLING SOCIETAL

 EN TRTM D
CULTURAL TASTING CULTURAL

 T E
Berlo’s model:comments
 Multidimentional in nature with several
factors examined to enhance effective comm.
 Comm. Achievement or failure is determined
by various interdependent factors.
 Looks human comm. as a psychological
behaviour thus, psychology is central in
understanding people we communicate to.
 Suggests that analysis of comm. Situations
must take into account on senders’ intention
in influencing the receiver &
Berlo’s model: comments…

 The model suggests to define comm. as a

process of interaction and sharing meanings.
Advantages of comm. models
 Organizational function: Relate systems to
each other in images of wholes that we might
easily perceive thus provide general picture of
a range of different circumstances
 Heuristic function:Simplify the understanding
of complicated and ambiguous information
 Guiding function: They can guide students or
researchers to key points of a process/system.
 Synoptic function: Summarize large
information into well focused points thus,
easily comprehended.
 Disadvantages of comm. models
 Oversimplification: some models tell us very little
about the forces at work that relate to each other.

 Inelasticity &Confinement of ideas: models tend to

trap originators and users within a limited
configuration(scope).
 Roles of Communication
Inform/be Get action Express Perform
informed done imagination social rituals
Entertain and

entertained

decision
Make
be

What roles
does
Communication
Develop a sense of

maintain mutual
play?

Establish and

relationship
identity as
h/beings

Meet
Stay health physiological and
physical needs
Communication Process
Communication normally goes through a cycle involving:

The Sender

The Message The Channel

The Feedback
The Channel

The Recipient
Stages of the Communication process

a) The sender-develops an idea

b) The idea is encoded into linguistic forms

c) The idea is transmitted to the destination

d) Reception of the idea by the intended

receiver

e) The idea is decoded/interpreted based

on receiver’s experiences

f) Feedback is sent to the sender by the

 Types of Communication

Communication types are classified according to

a) Channel
b) Style and purpose
c) Settings/levels of communication

Basing on a), There are 2 types

1. Verbal Communication

2. Non-Verbal Communication
 Verbal Communication
This is comprised of words and voice in both
written and spoken forms
 Words
 Use simple language (avoid jargon and
slang)
 Make sure that you are grammatically
correct
 Be clear and precise (avoid redundancy)
 Voice Modulation
 Diction
 Pitch
 Volume
 Rate
 Non-Verbal Communication

This is the communication using gestures, symbols, signs, emotions

e.t.c

 Gestures
 Find out your habits and nervous gestures

 Posture and movement

 Stand tall

 Facial Expressions
 Smile
 Eye Communication

Dressing style
Non-Verbal Communication
Non-Verbal Communication cont…

Theoretical writings and research classify

nonverbal communication into these areas:
 Body movement (kinesics behaviour)
 Physical characteristics (facial expression)
 Touching behaviour
 Vocal qualities (paralanguage)
 Space (proximity)
 Artifacts (dressing styles)
 Environment
Relationship:Verbal & -Verbal
 A non verbal msg can repeat the verbal one
 A non verbal msg can substitute the verbal
one e.g talking to your father a friend says
“hi” you just wave.
 Complements a verbal one. Words contents
match with our facial expression or gestures.
 Emphasize a verbal one. In writing “bold”,
underline, italicize
 Contradict , regulate (keep talking) pauses
Types of Communication based on
Style and Purpose
-Formal & Informal communication .
Formal communication : all the instances where communication has
to occur in a set formal format. Official conferences, meetings and

written memos and corporate letters.

- It also occurs between two strangers as they meet for the first time.

- Formal communication is straightforward, official and

normally precise with a stringent and rigid tone.

 Informal Communication
 Informal communication includes instances of free
unrestrained communication between people who
share a casual rapport with each other. Informal
communication does not have any rigid rules and
guidelines.
 Informal conversations need not necessarily have
boundaries of time, place or even subjects for that
matter.
 Forms of Communication

Forms of Communication in the Workplace

 Letters
 Memos
 Presentations
 Notices
 Agenda
 Announcements
 Meetings
 Policies
 Group Discussions
 Forms of Communication...

 Advertisements
 Declarations
 Press Releases
 Campaigns
 Annual General Meetings
 Publications
 Researched Articles for Journal
 Addressing to the Public at Large
 Manuals and Notices
 These are the forms of communication in a corporate
Settings/Levels of Communication
This make the 3rd classification of communication:
 Intra – personal Communication-This is the kind of
communication that takes place within an
individual. It is that one you deal with yourself
directly, arguing and discussing back and forth,
giving yourself constant feedback, and certainly
constructing meanings.
 Interpersonal Communication-This takes place
between two people. Communication becomes
interpersonal to the extent that the people involved
can see each other’s uniqueness and can explain and
predict each other’s behaviour on the basis of that
uniqueness.
Settings/Levels of Comm...
 Small group Communication - This kind of
communication takes place to people between 3-15
and not exceeding 20 people e.g. in a seminar,
tutorial class. It takes place in a context where every
person can participate actively with the others.

 Large Group Communication - This takes place

between 15-60 people and not exceeding 100. For
example in a lecture room of about 80 students.
 Public Communication -This is similar to large group
communication except that the number exceeds
100 and people are always gathered in one place
Settings/Levels of Commun...
such as a political rally at the constitutional square
or freedom square. Just one or few members talk,
while the rest of the group serves as an audience.
This speaker-audience relationship implies that
there is less feedback than in small group
communication.
Feedback is certainly exhibited through non verbal
responses like applause, boos. Due to this lack of
interaction, the speaker is held responsible to plan
and structure remarks than may be felt by the
speaker in smaller setting.
Settings/Levels of Commun...
Mass Communication - It occurs when a message is
constructed and transmitted so that many people,
in different places and often at different times, can
receive the same message. This is the kind of
communication to a dispersed audience and it is
always mediated. For instance the radio, television,
internet are part of the mass media that transmit to
a dispersed audience. Feedback is greatly delayed
as the speaker and the audience are in different
places.
Barriers to Effective Communication
 A barrier to communication is any thing that distorts the
process of communication. It makes one miss parts of a
message or the whole message or creates
misunderstanding of a message to the interlocutors.
Psychological
Physiological
Environmental

Barriers
Personal/Emotional

Socio-cultural Linguistic/Semantic
Barriers To Effective Communication
Psychological barriers
 Prejudice/pre-judgement
- Closed- mindedness-lack of interest in some topics
- Egocentrism-listerners give priority to their ideas only(Always right)

 Linguistic/ Semantic barriers

- Vocabulary size, ambiguity, jargons, slangs, language difference
- Mispronunciation of words
- Lag time- time from a word/ sentence to the other

-Environmental distractions
-Physical distractions-noisy surroundings, loud music
- Loud talking- conversation at top voices
-Visual barriers- posters on wall, person’s clothes, heavy jewelry
Barriers To Effective Commun…
 Personal/ Emotional barriers
- Beliefs and attitudes- based on religion, sex , politics
- - Trust and honest- A lack of trust can cause the receiver to
look for hidden meanings in the sender’s message.
- Fear
 Reluctance to confront
 fear of being wrong, Anger, anxiety
 Sad memories

Socio-cultural Barriers
 Generation Gap
 Information overload/ under load
 Socio-cultural diversity-The greater the difference between
the sender’s and receiver’s cultures, the greater the chance for
miscommunication.
Barriers cont…
 Physiological barriers
 - Speaking/listening impairment
 - Hunger, tiredness
 - Pain
Barriers to Effective Commun...
 Communication
Rights and Responsibilities
Rights Responsibilities

1. You have the right to be 1. You have the responsibility to

treated with respect. treat others with respect.

2. You have the right to have and 2. You have the responsibility to
express your own opinions. listen to the opinion of others.

3. You have the right to ask for 3. You have the responsibility to
what you need in order to be acknowledge and address the
effective. needs of others.

4. You have the right to set 4. You have the responsibility to

reasonable limits. respect the limits and
boundaries of others.
Channels: selection criteria

 The purpose of communication

 Ability of the Encoder to use the media
 Effectiveness of the media to deliver the msg
 Ability of the Decoder to access the msg via
such a media
 Availability of the media
Communicating Effectively
 For effective written or oral messages, comm.
Principles the “seven C’s” need be adopted.
1. Completeness -all facts the reader or listener

needs for the reaction you desire.

2. Conciseness -saying what you have to say in

the fewest possible words. At this time ‘now’

3. Consideration- preparing every message
with the message receivers in mind, try
Communicating Effectively…
4. Concreteness -be specific, definite, and vivid
not vague and general. use denotative rather
than connotative words.
5. Clarity- get your message across so that the
receiver understands what you convey. Pick
precise, short, concrete and familiar words.
6. Courtesy – use respectful &polite statements.
7. Correctness – Avoid errors in your message.
Punctuation, spellings, grammar, level of lge,
etc.
Communicating Effectively…
 Know your subject.
 Focus on the purpose.
 Know your audience.
 Use a confident tone and a levelled pitch.
– Be calm and collected at all times.
– Try to eliminate excessive “ums” and “uhs” as fillers.
 Speak slowly and make use of pauses to stress important
ideas.
– Use accurate diction and correct pronunciation
 Know what you are talking about and accept the limitations
of your knowledge.

 Be vibrant and enthusiastic.

– Avoid a dull, monotonous tone.
– Be loud enough to be easily heard.
Your Attendance &
Active Listening is
greatly
Appreciated.
 Styles of Behaviour in
Communication

Passive Assertive Aggressive

 Accepts  Both exercises  Demands but does
responsibilities. and extends not extend “rights”.
“rights” and
responsibilities.  Does not accept
 Extends but does
not feel entitled to responsibilities.
“rights” .
 Effective Listening Involves. . . To
be comprehensively Covered later

3. Understanding body
.1. Setting the stage
Language
• Remove Distractions • Observe position and posturing
• Be open and accessible
• Make eye contact
• Listen with Empathy
2. Ensuring Mutual • Consider expressions/gestures
Understanding
4. Suspending judgment
• Reflect feelings
• Paraphrase main ideas • Concentrate
• Seek clarification
• Keep an open mind
• Confirm next steps
• Hear the person out
3 Types of Listening

Passive Listening

Active Listening Hearing

 Listening and Speaking

Listening takes:
 Concentration and energy
 Curiosity and open-mindedness
 Analysis and understanding

Speaking requires:
 Sharp focus
 Logical thinking
 Clear phrasing
 Crisp delivery
Organizational Communication Flow
 Upward  Downward  Horizontal

Instructions
Information Coordination
Directives
 Vertical / Linear Communication
 Upward Communication
 Consists of messages sent up the line from
subordinates to bosses.
 Includes employee suggestions, reactions to
organizational policies, inquiries or concerns.

 Downward Communication
 Flows from individuals in higher levels of the
organization to those in lower levels.
 Includes meetings, official memos, policy
statements, manuals, and organizational
publications.
Horizontal Communication

The horizontal information flow that occurs

both within and between departments.

Generally, the purpose of lateral

communication is coordination and
collaboration.
Communicating Effectively
.

Barriers to communication
can lead to misunderstanding and confusion
Remember. . .

Effective communication
encompasses a multitude of
skills.

Skills can be learned and

practiced.