1

21 Century Literature from the

st

Philippines to the World

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 ACTIVITY:

1.Define Literature in your own

perspective.
2.How did people passed over
literature?
3. List the difference of
Literature now and then.
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Literature is a term used to describe written and
sometimes spoken material.

Derived from the Latin word litaritura/litteratura

meaning "writing formed with letters," literature most
commonly refers to works of the creative
imagination, including poetry, drama, fiction,
nonfiction, and in some instances, journalism, and
song.
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 What is Literature?

Simply put, literature represents the culture

and tradition of a language or a people. The
concept is difficult to precisely define, though
many have tried; it's clear that the accepted
definition of literature is constantly changing and
evolving.

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 What is Literature in perspective of
Filipino writers & interpreters

• In 1983, for Jose Arrogante, literature is a book of life

in which a person reveals things related to his
inexplicable color of life and life in his world. It makes
a person through creative methods.

• In 1995, Zeus Salazar described literature as a force

that motivated society. He added that it was a powerful
tool that could free one of the rushing ideas to escape.
For him, it is also a unique human experience unique to
mankind.
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 Why Is Literature Important?

• Works of literature, at their best, provide a kind of blueprint of

human society.

• From the writings of ancient civilizations such as Egypt and

China to Greek philosophy and poetry, from the epics of Homer
to the plays of William Shakespeare, from Jane Austen and
Charlotte Bronte to Maya Angelou, works of literature give
insight and context to all the world's societies.

• In this way, literature is more than just a historical or cultural

artifact; it can serve as an introduction to a new world of
experience.
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 - C o l o n i a l
P r e st
t u re t o 2 1
L i te r a
L i t e r a t u r e
Ce n tu r y
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 PRE – COLONIAL LITERATURE
• Pre-colonial inhabitants of our islands showcase a rich past through their folk speeches,
folk songs, folk narratives and indigenous rituals and mimetic dances that affirm our
ties with our Southeast Asian neighbors.

• Literature was principally oral in as much as writing was not yet invented and more of
the work were concise poetic.

• Some of these pre-colonial literary pieces showcased in traditional narratives, speeches

and songs are tigmo in Cebuano, bugtong in Tagalog, patototdon in Bicol and paktakon
in Ilonggo.

• Philippine epics and folk tales are varied and filled with magical characters. They are
either narratives of mostly mythical objects, persons or certain places, or epics telling
supernatural events and bravery of heroes, customs and ideologies of a community.
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 PRE – COLONIAL LITERATURE
Literary forms
• Bugtong (Riddles)
• Dalit (Religious song)
• Salawikain (Proverbs)
• Kundiman (Love song)
• Kasabihan (Saying)
• Dipayanin (Drinking
• Kantahing Bayan (Folk
song)
song)
• Hibais (Travel Song)
• Oyayi (Lullaby)
• Bung-aw (Funeral
• Soliranin (Boat song)
Song)
• Kumintang (War song) • Bansal (Courting song)
• Diona ( Wedding Song) 10
Literary Forms
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 MYTHS
Myth is a complex cultural phenomenon that can be
approached from a number of viewpoints.
In general, myth is a narrative that describes and portrays
in symbolic language the origin of the basic elements and
assumptions of a culture.
Mythic narrative relates, for example, how the world began,
how humans and animals were created, and how certain
customs, gestures, or forms of human activities originated.

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 MYTHS

• Myths are traditional stories occurring in a

timeless past.
• They involve supernatural elements and are beyond
the frontiers of logic.

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 MYTHS
• How the World Was Made (a creation story)
• The God’s and Goddesses (Ilocos)
• Why there is a high tide during full moon
(Ifugao)
• Why the dead come back no more (Ifugao)
• Mag-asawang Tubig (Tagalog)
• How the Moon and the Stars came to be
(Bukidnon – Mindanao)
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 MYTHS
The four Characteristics of a Myth:
1. Myths are stories that are told as if they are a fact.
2. Myths usually have gods and goddesses with
supernatural powers.
3. Myths often deal with the creation of the world
and natural events.
4. Myths provide lessons about good and bad
behaviour.

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 How the stars came to be (Bukidnon)
One day in the times when the sky was close to the
ground a spinster went out to pound rice. Before she
began her work, she took off the beads from around her
neck and the comb from her hair, and hung them on the
sky, which at that time looked like coral rock. Then she
began working, and each time that she raised her pestle
into the air it struck the sky. For some time she pounded
the rice, and then she raised the pestle so high that it
struck the sky very hard. Immediately the sky began to
rise, and it went up so far that she lost her ornaments.
Never did they come down, for the comb became the
moon and the beads are the stars that are scattered about.
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 EPIC

An epic is a long poem, typically one derived from

ancient oral tradition, narrating deeds and adventures
of heroic or legendary figures or the history of a
nation. An epic is made up of 6 elements.

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 6 ELEMENTS OF EPIC
1. The plot centers around a Hero of unbelievable stature who is
partially divine or protected by a God or Gods.
2. It involves deeds of superhuman strength and valour. Accomplish
feats no real human could.
3. There is a vast setting. The actions spans across land, sea, into the
underworld. Thru space time, etc.
4. It involves Gods, demons, angels, time, cheating death or other
supernatural forces.
5. The text is often overwritten formal and highly stylized.
6. The narrator often sees and knows all and presents all perspective.

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 QUALITIES OF AN EPIC
HERO

1. The hero is born of a noble birth.

2. S/he has warrior virtues.
3. The hero acts honourably.
4. S/he is chosen by the God or fate.

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 LEGENDS

Traditional narrative or collection of related

narratives, popularly regarded as historically factual
but actually a mixture of fact and fiction.
The medieval Latin word legenda means “things for
reading”.
During certain services of the early Christian Church,
legenda, or lives of the saints, were read aloud.
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 LEGENDS
• A legend differs from a myth by portraying a
human or human hero rather than one who is a god.
• Legends, originally oral, have been developed into
literary masterpieces.
• Legends are stories about real people who are
famous for doing something brave or extraordinary.
Every time the story was told, it became more
exaggerated and so it is now difficult to tell how
much of the story is really true.
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 LEGENDS

• Legend of the Pineapple

• Legend of Banana plant

• Legend of the firefly

• Legend of Dama de Noche

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 RIDDLES /BUGTONG

• Made up of one or more measured lines with

rhymes and may consist of 4 to 12 syllables.
• Showcase the Filipino wit, literary talent, and keen
observation of the surroundings.
• Involves reference to one or two images that
symbolize the characteristics of an unknown object
that is to be guessed
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 RIDDLES /BUGTONG
1. Nagtago si Pedro, labas ang ulo. (Pedro hides but you can still see his head. )
2. Hindi pari, hindi hari, nagdadamit ng sari-sari. (Not a priest, not a king but
wears different kinds of clothes.)
3. Bugtong-pala-bugtong, kadenang umuugong. (Riddle me, riddle me, here
comes a roaring chain).
4. Heto na si Kaka, bubuka-bukaka. (Here comes Kaka, walking with an open
leg.)
5. Buhok ni Adan, hindi mabilang. (Adam's hair, you can't count.)
6. Sa araw ay bungbong, sa gabi ay dahon. (Roll in the morning, leaf in the
afternoon).
7. Iisa ang pasukan, tatlo ang labasan. (It has one entrance, but has three exit. )
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 PROVERB / EPIGRAMS
(salawikain o sawikain)

• A proverb is a simple and concrete saying, popularly known

and repeated, that expresses a truth based on common sense
or experience. They are often metaphorical.

• A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be

known as a maxim. These have been customarily used and
served as laws or rules on good behavior by our ancestors.
To others, these are like allegories or parables that impart
lessons for the young. 25
 PROVERB / EPIGRAMS
(salawikain o sawikain)

• A broom is sturdy because its strands are tightly bound.

Matibay ang walis, palibhasa'y magkabigkis.
People gain strength by standing together.

• It is hard to wake up someone who is pretending to be asleep.

Mahirap gisingin ang nagtutulog-tulugan. While it is easy to
tell people something they do not know, it is much harder if
they are willfully choosing not to see what is before them.
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 PROVERB / EPIGRAMS
(salawikain o sawikain)

• Matibay ang walis, palibhasa'y magkabigkis.

A broom is sturdy because its strands are tightly bound.
People gain strength by standing together. (meaning)

• Mahirap gisingin ang nagtutulog-tulugan.

It is hard to wake up someone who is pretending to be
asleep.
While it is easy to tell people something they do not know, it is much
harder if they are willfully choosing not to see what is before them.
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 PROVERB / EPIGRAMS
(salawikain o sawikain)

• Pag may tiyaga, may nilaga.

If you persevere, you will reap the fruits of your labor.
They don't call them the fruits of labor for nothing. Hard work and perseverance are
needed to reach your goals. But if you keep trying, one day you will enjoy the results
of your efforts.

• Bagong hari, bagong ugali.

New king, new character.
New leadership always brings new ways.
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 CHANTS (BULONG)

• Chants are used in witchcraft and enchantments.

• Our ancestors also believe in unseen spirits or elemental spirits
like dwarfs. They give respect, ask for permission, and excuse
or apology to these spirits in order to deliver them from trouble
and danger.
Example of chants:
Tabi-tabi po
Ingkong, makikiraan po lamang.
Bari-bari Apo, umisbo lang ti tao. (Ilokano)
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 SAYINGS (Kasabihan)

Sayings are used in teasing or to comment on a persons’

actuations.

Example of sayings:
Nag-almusal mag-isa; Kaninglamig, tinapa
Nahulog ang kutsara; Ikaw na sana, sinta.

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 SAYINGS (Kasabihan)

Sayings are used in teasing or to comment on a persons’

actuations.

Example of sayings:
Nag-almusal mag-isa;
Kaninglamig, tinapa;
Nahulog ang kutsara;
Ikaw na sana, sinta.
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 FOLKSONGS

• A form of folk lyric which expresses the people’s hopes,

aspirations and lifestyles.
• Repetitive, sonorous and naïve.
• Traditional songs and melodies.
• Inspired by the reaction of the people to their
environment.
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 FOLKSONGS
1. Uyayi – lullaby
2. Kumintang – war song
3. Kundiman – melancholic love song
4. Harana – serenade
5. Tagay/Dipayanin – drinking song
6. Mambayu – Kalinga rice-pounding song
7. Subli/Bansal – dance ritual song of courtship or
marriage
8. Tagulaylay – songs of the dead 33
 AMBAHAN
The ambahan is a literary product and poetic expression of the Southern
Mangyans of Mindoro, Philippines.

As a definition, it can be stated that the ambahan is:

a. A rhythmic poetic expression with a meter of seven syllable lines and
having rhythmic end-syllables.
b. It is most often presented as a chant without a determined musical
pitch or accompaniment by musical instruments.
c. Its purpose is to express in an allegorical way, liberally using poetic
language, certain situations or certain characteristics referred to by the
one reciting the poem. 34
 - C o l o n i a l
P r e st
t u re t o 2 1
L i te r a
L i t e r a t u r e
Ce n tu r y
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PRE – COLONIAL LITERATURE
The variety and abundance of Philippine literature evolved
even before the colonial periods.

Folk tales, epics, poems and marathon chants existed in

most ethno linguistic groups that were passed on from
generation to generation through word of mouth.

Pre-colonial inhabitants of our islands showcase a rich past

through their folk speeches, folk songs, folk narratives and
indigenous rituals and mimetic dances that affirm our ties
with our Southeast Asian neighbors.
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 PRE – COLONIAL LITERATURE
With the passage of time Oral Literature becomes lengthy and this long forms was the epic such
as:

• Biag ni Lam-ang (Ilocanos)

• Alim and Hudhud
(Ifugaos) • Bantugan (Muslims)
• Kumintang (Tagalog)
• Indarapatra and
• Ibalon (Bicolanos)
Sulayman
• Maragtas and Hinilawod (Maguindanao)
(Visayas)
• Hari sa Bukid (Hiligaynon) • Tatuaang (Bagobos)
• Dagoy and Sudsud
(Tagbanuas) 37
 Examples of ethno-epics
popularized by different ethnic
groups in the country
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 Biag Ni Lam-ang
Biag ni Lam-ang (Life of Lam-ang) of the Ilocanos
narrates the adventures of the prodigious epic hero,
Lam-ang who exhibits extraordinary powers at an
early age.
At nine months he is able to go to war to look for
his father’s killers. Then while in search of lady
love, Ines Kannoyan, he is swallowed by a big
fish, but his rooster and his friends bring him back
to life.

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 The Agyu or Olahing
The Agyu or Olahing of the Manobos is a three
part epic that starts with the pahmara (invocation)
then the kepu’unpuun ( a narration of the past) and
the sengedurog (an episode complete in itself).
All three parts narrate the exploits of the hero as he
leads his people who have been driven out of their
land to Nalandangan, a land of utopia where there
are no landgrabbers and oppressors.

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 Sandayo

Sandayo of the Subanon tells of the story of the

hero with the same name, who is born through
extraordinary circumstances as he fell out of the
hair of his mother while she was combing it on the
ninth stroke. Thence, he leads his people in the
fight against invaders of their land and waterways.

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 Aliguyon or Hudhud

Aliguyon or the Hudhud of the Ifugaos tells of the

adventures of Aliguyon as he battles his arch
enemy, Pambukhayon among rice fields and
terraces and instructs his people to be steadfast and
learn the wisdom of warfare and of peacemaking
during harvest seasons.

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 Aliguyon or Hudhud

Aliguyon or the Hudhud of the Ifugaos tells of the

adventures of Aliguyon as he battles his arch
enemy, Pambukhayon among rice fields and
terraces and instructs his people to be steadfast and
learn the wisdom of warfare and of peacemaking
during harvest seasons.

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LITERATURE IN SPANISH
COLONIZATION
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

• Spanish colonization in the Philippines started

in 1565 during the time of Miguel Lopez de
Legazpi, the first Spanish governor-general in
the Philippines.
• Literature started to flourish during his time.
• The Spaniards colonized the Philippines for
more that three centuries.
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• The Spanish colonizers wanted to undermine the
native oral tradition by substituting for it the story
of the Passion of Christ. However, the native
tradition survived and even flourished in areas
inaccessible to the Spaniards.
• The church authorities adopted a policy of
spreading the Church doctrines by communicating
to the natives in their own language.

⁂ DOCTRINA CHRISTIANA (1593) The first book

to be printed in the Philippines, was a prayer book
written in Spanish with an accompanying Tagalog
translation. 45
• The task of translating religious instructional materials
forced the Spanish missionaries to employ native as
translators.
• Eventually, these natives learned to read and write both in
Spanish and in their native tongue.
 Ladinos – bilingual natives; they published their
works, mainly devotional poetry, in the first decade of
the 17th century.
 GASPAR AQUINO DE BELEN – the most gifted
among the ladinos.
- He wrote the Mahal na Pasion ni Jesu Christo, a
Tagalog poem based on Christ’s passion, was published in
1704.
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SPANISH INFLUENCES IN
LITERATURE
 The first Filipino alphabet called ALIBATA was
replaced by the Roman alphabet.
 The teaching of the Christian Doctrine became the
basis of religious practices.
 The Spanish language which became the literary
language during this time lent many of its words to
our language.
 The periodicals during these times gained a
religious tone.
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SPANISH INFLUENCES IN
LITERATURE
 Many grammar books were printed in Filipino, like
Tagalog, Ilocano, and Visayan.
 European legends and traditions brought here became
assimilated in our songs, corridos and moro- moros.
 Ancient literature was collected and translated to Tagalog
and other dialects.
 Until the 19th century, the printing presses that published
literary works were owned and managed by religious order.
Thus, religious themes dominated the literature of the time.

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 Religion and institutions that represented European
civilization enriched the languages in the lowlands, introduced
theater which we would come to known as komedya, the
sinakulo, the sarswela, the playlets and the drama.

Spain also brought to the country, though at a much later

time, liberal ideas and an internationalism that influenced our
own Filipino intellectuals and writers for them to understand the
meanings of “liberty and freedom.”

Literature in this period may be classified as religious prose

and poetry and secular prose and poetry.

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FILIPINO WORKS DURING SPANISH
TIME

1. Mi Ultimo Adios, Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo

by Jose Rizal
2. Dasal at Tocsohan by Marcelo H. del Pilar
3. Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa by Andres Bonifacio
4. Ninay by Pedro Paterno
5. Florante at Laura by Francisco Baltazar
6. Ibong Adarna by Jose dela Cruz

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SPANISH TIME

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 AMERICAN PERIOD

 American defeated Spaniards in Spanish-American

War which resulted in TREATY OF PARIS

 Introduced the public school system in the

Philippines and English Language

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 AMERICAN PERIOD

 THOMASITES- first English teachers.

 The Filipino learned language and used it in their

writings

- Freedom of expression
- Freedom of press

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 AMERICAN PERIOD
 In 1910, a new group started to write in English. Hence,
Spanish, Tagalog , the Vernaculars and finally , English,
were the mediums used in literature during these times.

 The writers in Spanish continued to write on nationalism

like honoring Rizal and other heroes.
 The writers in Tagalog continued in their lamentations on
the conditions of the country and their attempts to arouse
love for one’s native tongue.
 The writers in English imitated the themes and methods of
the Americans.
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 AMERICAN PERIOD
 The U.P. Writers Club founded in 1926, had stated that one
of its aims was to enhance and propagate the “language of
Shakespeare.”

 In 1925, Paz Marquez Benitez short story, “Dead Stars”

was published and was made the landmark of the maturity
of the Filipino writer in English.
 Soon after Benitez, short story writers began publishing
stories no longer imitative of American models. Thus, story
writers like Icasiano Calalang, A.E. Litiatco, Arturo Rotor,
Lydia Villanueva, Paz Latorena , Manuel Arguilla began
publishing stories manifesting both skilled use of the
language and a keen Filipino sensibility. 55
 AMERICAN PERIOD
 This combination of writing in a borrowed tongue while
dwelling on Filipino customs and traditions earmarked the
literary output of major Filipino fictionists in English
during the American period.

 The well-known literature during this period are:

- Filipino Rebel by Maximo Kalaw
- His Native Soil by Juan C. Laya
- How My Brother Leon Brought Home A Wife by Manuel
Arguilla
- Children of the Ash Covered Loam by N.V.M. Gonzales
- Footnote to Youth by Jose Garcia Villa
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 AMERICAN PERIOD

 Plays written during this period:

- Kahapon, Ngayon, at Bukas by Aurelio Tolentino

- Tanikalang Ginto by Juan Abad
- Malaya by Thomas Remegio
- Walang Sugat by Severino Reyes

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 JAPANESE PERIOD

 The invaders saw to it that Filipino

movements be limited
 The writers stop wielding pens and started
wielding guns
 They introduce Nippongo and their literary
arts and forms

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 JAPANESE PERIOD

 Philippine Literature was interrupted in its

development when the Philippines was again
conquered by another foreign country, Japan.

 Philippine literature in English came to a halt.

Almost all newspapers in English were
stopped by the Japanese.

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 JAPANESE PERIOD
 This had an advantageous effect on Filipino
Literature, which experienced renewed
attention because writers in English turned to
writing in Filipino.

 Juan Laya, who use to write in English

turned to Filipino because of the strict
prohibitions of the Japanese regarding any
writing in English. 60
 JAPANESE PERIOD
 The weekly LIWAYWAY (weekly magazine)
was placed under strict surveillance until it
was managed by Japanese named ISHIWARA.

 In other words, Filipino literature was given a

break during this period.
 Many wrote plays, poems, short stories, etc.
Topics and themes were often about life in the
provinces. 61
 JAPANESE PERIOD
 A few of play writers were:
1. Jose Ma. Hernandez – wrote PANDAY PIRA
2. Francisco Soc Rodrigo – wrote sa PULA, SA
PUTI
3. Clodualdo del Mundo – wrote BULAGA (an
expression in the game Hide and Seek).
4. Julian Cruz Balmaceda – wrote SINO BA
KAYO?, DAHIL SA ANAK, and HIGANTE
NG PATAY.
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 JAPANESE PERIOD

 Some stories that was written this time:

1. LUPANG TINUBUAN – Narciso Reyes
2. UHAW ANG TIGANG NA LUPA –
Liwayway Arceo
3. LUNSOD, NAYON AT DAGAT-
DAGATAN – NVM Gonzales

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 JAPANESE PERIOD
 IKEBANA – art of arranging flowers.
 ORIGAMI – art of folding papers.
 TEMPURA & SUSHI - cuisine

POETIC FORMS

Haiku
Tanka
Senryu
64
 Haiku
 Short descriptive poem about nature
 Consisting 17 syllables
5 syllables in the first line
7 syllables in the second line
5 syllables in the third line

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 Senryu

 a 3 lines similar to haiku structure with

 5-7-5 but differs from the latter in rhyme
 the subject is human nature The tone is
satirical and ironical

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 Tanka

 The longest among three

 has 5 lines and 31 syllables -5-7-5-7-7

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CONTEMPORARY PERIOD
 THE REBIRTH OF FREEDOM (1946-1970)

• The Americans returned in 1945. Filipinos rejoiced

and guerillas who fled to the mountain joined the
liberating American Army.

• On July 4, 1946, the Philippines regained is freedom

and the Filipino flag waved joyously alone. The chains
were broken.

68
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD

 THE STATE OF LITERATURE DURING THIS

PERIOD

• The early post-liberation period was marked by a kind

of “struggle of mind and spirit” posed by the sudden
emancipation from the enemy, and the wild desire to
see print.

69
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD
 The flowering of Philippine literature in the various
languages continue especially with the appearance
of new publications after the Martial Law years and
the resurgence of committed literature in the 1960s
and the 1970s.

 Filipino writers continue to write poetry, short

stories, novellas, novels and essays whether these
are socially committed, gender/ethnic related or are
personal in intention or not.
70
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD
 PERIOD OF ACTIVISM (1970-1972)

• Many young people became activists to ask for

changes in the government.

- In the expression of this desire for change, keen were

the writings of some youth who were fired with
nationalism in order to emphasize the importance of
their petitions.

71
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD
 THE LITERARY REVOLUTION

- The youth became completely rebellious during this period.

This was proven not only in the bloody demonstrations and in
the sidewalk expressions but also in literature.

- Campus newspapers showed rebellious emotions. The once

aristocratic writers developed awareness for society. They held
pens and wrote on placards in red paint the equivalent of the
word MAKIBAKA (To dare!).

72
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD

 PALANCA AWARDEES FOR LITERATURE IN

ENGLISH

- Established in 1950, the Palanca Memorial Awards for

Literature had been giving cash prizes for short story, poetry
and one-act play writing as an incentive to Filipino writers.

- The prizes come from La Tondena, Inc., the firm founded by

the late Carlos Palanca Sr.

73
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD
 PERIOD OF THE NEW SOCIETY (1972-1980)

- The period of the New Society started on September 21,

1972.
- The Carlos Palanca Awards continued to give annual awards.
- Almost all themes in most writings dealt with the
development or progress of the country –like the Green
Revolution, family planning, proper nutrition, environment,
drug addiction and pollution.
- The New Society tried to stop pornography or those writings
giving bad influences on the morals of the people.
74
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD

 FILIPINO POETRY DURING THE PERIOD OF

THE NEW SOCIETY

- Themes of most poems dealt with patience, regard for

native culture, customs and the beauties of nature and
surroundings.

75
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD

 THE PLAY UNDER THE NEW SOCIETY

- The government led in reviving old plays and dramas,

like the Tagalog Zarzuela, Cenaculo and the Embayoka
of the Muslims which were presented in the rebuilt
Metropolitan Theater, the Folk Arts Theater and the
Cultural Center of the Philippines.

76
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD

 RADIO AND TELEVISION

-Radio continued to be patronized during this period.

-The play series like SI MATAR, DAHLIA, ITO

AND PALAD KO, and MR. LONELY were the
forms of recreation of those without television

77
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD

 FILIPINO FILMS

-A yearly Pista ng mga Pelikulng Pilipino (Yearly

Filipino Film Festival) was held during this time.

-During the festival which lasted usually for a month,

only Filipino films were shown in all theaters in
Metro Manila.

78
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD

 COMICS, MAGAZINES AND OTHER

PUBLICATIONS

-During this period of the New Society, newspapers

donned new forms.

-News on economic progress, discipline, culture,

tourism and the like were favored more than the
sensationalized reporting of killings, rape and
robberies. 79
Importance of Philippine Literature

• Literacy is for all Filipinos.

• One example is the advancement of other Filipinos.

Although they left their homeland, literature was their bridge
to their left country.

• In the social, national, and global affiliation, literature is one

of the basics of gaining the success and failure of a nation
and the relations of nations.

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