NORMAL
DISTRIBUTIONS
Properties of a Normal Distribution
• The distribution curve is bell-shaped
• The curve is symmetrical about its center
• The mean, median, and mode coincide at the center
• The tails of the curve flatten out indefinitely along the horizontal
axis but never touch it (the curve is asymptotic to the base line)
• The area under the curve is 1. thus, it represents the probability or
proportion or the percentage associated with specific sets of
measurement values
2
Empirical Rule for a Normal distribution
In a normal distributions, approximately
▪ 68% of the data lie within 1 standard
deviation of the mean.
▪ 95% of the data lie within 2 standard
deviation of the mean.
▪ 99.7% of the data lie within 3 standard
deviation of the mean.
3
hundredth place of a z-value
z-values
4
Four-Step Process
in Finding the Areas Under the Normal Curve given a z-value
1. Express the given z-value into a 3-digit form
2. Using the z-table, find the first two digits on the left column
3. Match the third digit with the appropriate column on the right
4. Read the area (or probability) at the intersection of the row and
column..
5
Find the area that corresponds to z = 2
Finding the area that corresponds to is the same as finding the area between z = 0 and z = 2 ( 0 < z <
2)
z=2 2.0 + .00 = .4772
6
Find the area that corresponds to z = 2.47
Finding the area that corresponds to is the same as finding the area between z = 0 and z = 2.47 ( 0 < z < 2.47)
z = 2.47 2.4 + .07 = .4932
7
Determine the area under the standard normal curve to
the right of z = 1.63 ( 0 < z < 1.63)
z = 1.63
Area = 0.4484
To the right of z = 1.63
= 0.5000 – 0.4484
= 0.0516
Find the area under the standard normal curve between
z = 1.03 and z = -0.37 (-0.37 < z < 1.03)
z = 1.03 0.3485
z = -0.37 0.1443
= 0.3485 + 0.1443
= 0.4928
Using scientific calculator
𝑧2 −1 2
1 𝑥
∫
√2 𝜋 𝑧
𝑒 2
𝑑𝑥
1
𝐴 ( 𝑧1 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧2 )
10
Find the area of the standard normal distribution between z = -1.44 and z = 0
𝐴 ( 𝑧1 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧2 )
𝐴 (−1.44 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 0)
𝑧2 −1 2
1 𝑥
√2 𝜋
∫𝑒 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑧1
Thus, the area of the standard normal distribution
between z = -1.44 and z = 0 is 0.4251. 11
Find the area of the standard normal distribution to the right of z = 0.82
𝐴 ( 𝑧 > 𝑧 1)
0.500 -
𝑧2 −1 2
1 𝑥
√2 𝜋
∫𝑒 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑧1
Thus, the area of the standard normal distribution
to the right of z = 0.82 is 0.2061. 12
Find the area of the standard normal distribution between z = 1.08 and z = 2.96
𝐴 (1.08< 𝑧 <2.96)
𝑧2 −1 2
1 𝑥
√2 𝜋
∫𝑒 2
𝑑𝑥
𝑧1
Thus, the area of the standard normal distribution
to the right of z = 0.82 is 0.1385. 13
A soda machine dispenses soda into 12-ounce cups. Test show that the actual amount of soda
dispensed is normally distributed with a mean off 11.5 oz and a standard deviation of 0.2 oz.
a) What percent of cups will receive less than 11.25 oz of soda?
𝑥−𝑥
𝑧 𝑥=
𝑠 𝐴 ( 𝑧 <11.25 )=0.5000− 0.3944
𝑧 𝑥=
11.25 −11.5 ¿ 0.1056
0.2
¿ 0.1056 (100)
𝑧 𝑥 =− 1.25 ¿ 10.56 %
¿ 0. 3944 14
A soda machine dispenses soda into 12-ounce cups. Test show that the actual amount of soda
dispensed is normally distributed with a mean off 11.5 oz and a standard deviation of 0.2 oz.
b) What percent of cups will receive between 11.2 oz and 11.55 oz of soda?
𝑥−𝑥
𝑧 𝑥=
𝑠 𝐴 (− 1.5< 𝑧 < 0.25 )
11.55 −11.5
¿ 0.4332+ 0.0987
11.2 −11.5 𝑧 𝑥=
𝑧 𝑥=
0.2 0.2 ¿ 0.5319
𝑧 𝑥 =− 1.5 𝑧 𝑥 = 0.25 ¿ 0.5319 (100)
¿ 0. 4332 ¿ 0. 0987 ¿ 53.19 %
15
A soda machine dispenses soda into 12-ounce cups. Test show that the actual amount of soda
dispensed is normally distributed with a mean off 11.5 oz and a standard deviation of 0.2 oz.
c) If a cup is filled at random, what is the probability that the machine will
overflow the cup?
𝑥−𝑥
𝐴 ( 𝑧 >2.5 )
𝑧 𝑥=
𝑠
¿ 0.5000 − 0.4938
12− 11.5
𝑧 𝑥=
0.2 ¿ 0.5000 − 0.4938
𝑧 𝑥 =2.5 ¿ 0.0062 (100)
¿ 0.62 %
¿ 0. 4938 16
CORRELATION
SCATTER PLOT
• A scatter plot is a graph of ordered pair (x, y) of numbers consisting of the
independent variable x, and the dependent variable, y.
• The independent variable is the variable that can be controlled or
manipulated.
• The dependent variable is the variable that cannot be controlled or
manipulated.
• The independent variable is plotted on the horizontal axis and the dependent
variable on the vertical axis.
• The purpose of this graph is to determine the nature of the relationship
between the variables. The relationship may be positive linear, negative
linear, curvilinear, or no discernible relationship.
18
Example 1. Construct a scatter plot for the given data.
Age, x Pressure, y 160
43 128 140
48 120 120
100
56 135
Pressure
80
61 143
60
67 141
40
70 152
20
0
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
Age
19
Example 2.
35
A B
50 30 30
45 27 25
40 24 20
35 21
B
15
30 18
10
25 15
20 12 5
15 9 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
10 6 A
5 3
This illustrates a perfect positive relationship. When
computed, the coefficient of correlation is equal to 1. 20
Example 3.
A B 35
50 3 30
45 6 25
40 9 20
35 12
B
15
30 15 10
25 18
5
20 21
0
15 24 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
A
10 27
5 30
This illustrates a perfect negative relationship. When
computed, the coefficient of correlation is equal to -1. 21
Example 4.
30
A B
50 24 25
45 21
20
40 18
15
35 23
B
30 18 10
25 11
5
20 10
15 7 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
A
10 4
5 2
This illustrates a very high positive correlation between
the two sets of points. 22
Example 5.
A B 25
50 8
20
45 20
40 6 15
35 15
B
10
30 5
25 20 5
20 9
0
15 8 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
A
10 16
5 8
This illustrates a low negative relationship. When the
points are evenly distributed all over the scatter diagram,
23
that will indicate that there is no relationship.
CORRELATION
▪ Correlation is a statistical method used to determine if there is a relationship
between variables and the strength of the relationship.
Pearson Correlation Coefficient
▪ The degree of linear association/relationship between two variables (at least of
interval scale) is measured by a correlation coefficient, denoted by r.
▪ It is sometimes called Pearson correlation coefficient (Pearson product moment
correlation coefficient) in honor of its developer.
Formula: 𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑦 − ∑ 𝑥 ∑ 𝑦
𝑟=
√[ 𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 − ( ∑ 𝑥 ) ] [ 𝑛 ∑ 𝑦 − (∑ 𝑦 ) ]
2 2 2 2
24
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑦 − ∑ 𝑥 ∑ 𝑦
𝑟=
√[ 𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 − ( ∑ 𝑥 ) ] [ 𝑛 ∑ 𝑦 − (∑ 𝑦 ) ]
2 2 2 2
where,
n = no. of pairs of scores Σxy = sum of the products of paired scores
Σx = sum of x scores Σy = sum of y scores
Σx2 = sum of squared x scores Σy2 = sum of squared y scores
r Interpretation
±1.0 Perfect (Positive/Negative) Correlation
Interpretation: ± 0.80 – 0.99 Very Strong (Positive/Negative) Correlation
± 0.60 – 0.79 Strong (Positive/Negative) Correlation
± 0.40 – 0.59 Moderate (Positive/Negative) Correlation
± 0.20 – 0.39 Weak (Positive/Negative) Correlation
± 0.01 – 0.19 Very Weak (Positive/Negative) Correlation
0.0 No Correlation
25
Example: A statistics professor at a state university wants to see how strong the
relationship is between a student’s score on a test and his or her grade point
average. The data obtained from the sample follow.
Test score, x 98 105 100 100 106 95 116 112
GPA, y 2.1 2.4 3.2 2.7 2.2 2.3 3.8 3.4
Solution: Subject x y xy
xy xx22 yy22
∑ 𝑥=832 1 98 2.1 98(2.1)
205.8 =
205.8 9604
98(98)=
9604 4.41
2.1(2.1)=
4.41
2 105 2.4 252 11025 5.76
∑ 𝑦=22.1 3 100 3.2 320 10000
10000
10.24
7.29
∑ 𝑥𝑦=2321.1
4 100 2.7 270
5 106 2.2 233.2 11236 4.84
∑ 𝑥 =86890
2 6
7
95
116
2.3
3.8
218.5
440.8
9025
13456
5.29
14.44
∑ 𝑦 =63.83
2
𝑛=8
8
sum
112
832
3.4
22.1
380.8
2321.1
12544
86890
11.56
63.83 26
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑦 − ∑ 𝑥 ∑ 𝑦
𝑟=
√[ 𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 − ( ∑ 𝑥 ) ] [ 𝑛 ∑ 𝑦 − (∑ 𝑦 ) ]
2 2 2 2
∑ 𝑥=832
8( 2321.1) −(832)(22.1)
𝑟=
√ [ 8 ( 86890 ) − ( 832 ) ] [ 8 ( 63.83 ) − ( 22.1 ) ]
2 2
∑ 𝑦=22.1 ¿
181.6
√(2896 )(22.23)
∑ 𝑥𝑦=2321.1 ¿
181.6
∑ 𝑥 2=86890
2 √ 64378.08
The correlation coefficient suggests
∑ 𝑦 =63.83
¿ 0.72 a strong positive relationship
between the test score and the
grade point average. 27
𝑛=8
REGRESSION
Linear Regression Analysis
• Linear regression is the simplest and commonly used statistical measure for
prediction studies.
• It is concerned with finding an equation that uses the known values of one or
more variables, called the independent or predictor variables, to estimate the
unknown value of quantitative variable called the dependent or criterion.
• It is a prediction when a variable (y) is dependent on the second variable (x)
based on the regression equation of a given set of data.
• After a scatter plot is constructed and the value of correlation coefficient is
deemed to be significant, then an equation of the regression line is
determined.
• The regression line is the data’s line to be fit.
• The closer the points fit the regression line, the higher the absolute value of r
29
and the closer it will be to + 1 or to -1.
Formula for Regression Line
y’ = a + bx
and a=
where - mean of x ; - b
(∑ 𝑥)
2
(∑ 𝒙 )( ∑ 𝒚 ) 𝑆𝑆 𝑥𝑥 =∑ 𝑥 −
𝑆𝑆 𝑥𝑦 =∑ 𝒙𝒚 −
2
𝒏 𝑛
Note: Round the values of a and b to three decimal places.
30
CHARACTERISTICS OF ATHE REGRESSION LINE
▪ When b > 0, y increases as x increases. In this case,
we say that y is directly or positively related to x.
Positive Linear Relationship
31
[Link]
CHARACTERISTICS OF ATHE REGRESSION LINE
▪ When b < 0, y decreases as x increases. In this case,
we say that y is inversely or negatively related to x.
Negative Linear Relationship
32
[Link]
CHARACTERISTICS OF ATHE REGRESSION LINE
▪ When b = 0, y is constant and is equal to y-intercept a. This
implies that there is no change in Y whatever X value is.
No Relationship
33
[Link]
Example: A statistics professor at a state university wants to see how strong the
relationship is between a student’s score on a test and his or her grade point
average. The data obtained from the sample follow.
Test score, x 98 105 100 100 106 95 116 112
GPA, y 2.1 2.4 3.2 2.7 2.2 2.3 3.8 3.4
Solution:
( ∑ 𝒙 )( ∑ 𝒚 )
Subjec 𝑆𝑆 𝑥𝑦 =∑ 𝒙𝒚 −
x y xy
xy xx22 yy22 𝒏
¿ 2321.1 −¿ ¿
t
205.8
98(2.1)
205.8 = 9604
9604
98(98)= 4.41
2.1(2.1)=
4.41
1 98 2.1
252 11025 5.76
2 105 2.4
3 100 3.2 320 10000 10.24 ¿ 22.7
(∑ 𝑥)
10000 7.29 2
4 100 2.7 270
11236 4.84 𝑆𝑆 𝑥𝑥 =∑ 𝑥 −
2
5 106 2.2 233.2
𝑛
9025 5.29
6 95 2.3 218.5
( 832 ) 2
13456 14.44 ¿ 86890 −
7 116 3.8 440.8 8
12544 11.56
8 112 3.4
¿ 362
380.8
86890 63.83 34
sum 832 22.1 2321.1
The values needed for the equation are
𝑆𝑆 𝑥𝑥 =362 𝑆𝑆 𝑥𝑦 =22.7
𝑥=
∑ 𝑥 832
= 𝑦=
= 104
∑ 𝑦
=
22.1
=2.76
𝑛 8 𝑛 8
𝑆𝑆 𝑥𝑦 22.7
𝑏= = =0.063
𝑆𝑆 𝑥𝑥 362
a= = 2.76 - (0.063)(104) = -3.792
y’ = a + bx
Hence, the equation is y’ = -3.792 + 0.063x 35
Example: A statistics professor at a state university wants to see how strong the
relationship is between a student’s score on a test and his or her grade point
average. The data obtained from the sample follow.
Test score, x 98 105 100 100 106 95 116 112
GPA, y 2.1 2.4 3.2 2.7 2.2 2.3 3.8 3.4
Estimate the GPA, given the test score. For instance, if the test score is 120,
then the estimated GPA is
y’ = -3.792 + 0.063x
= -3.792 + 0.063(120)
= 3.768
36
Thanks!
References:
• Guillermo, R.(2018). Mathematics in the Modern World: A
Worktext. Nieme Publishing House Co. LTD. Quezon City,
Philippines
• Rodriguez, M. J.(2018). Mathematics in the Modern World:
Nieme Publishing House Co. LTD. Quezon City, Philippines
• Aufmann, R. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Rex
Book Store Inc. Manila, Philippines.
• Alferez. M.S. (2006). MSA Statistics and Probability. MSA
Publishing House. Cainta, Philippines
• Belecina, R. R., Baccay, E. S., Mateo, E. B. (2016).
Statistics and Probability (1st ed). Manila, Philippines:
REX Book Store
37
