Highway Engineering I
Chapter 6 – Intersection At-grade
and Interchanges
Grade
separated
With ramps
(Interchange
s)
Without
ramps
(meaning
no
connectio
n
between
the
intersecti
on roads!)
Intersection
A junction, or intersection, is the general
area where two or more roads join. (ERA
GDM 2013)
An intersection is defined as the general
area where two or more highways join or
cross, including the roadway and roadside
facilities for traffic movements within the
area. (AASHTO, 2011)
Intersection(cont’d)
Good junction design should allow
transition from one route to another route or
through movement on the main route and
intersecting routes with minimum delay
and maximum safety.
To accomplish this, the layout and operation
of the junction should be obvious to the
driver with good visibility b/n conflicting
movements
Intersection(cont’d)
Depending on the traffic flows, speed, site
limitations types of intersection junction
used are
I. Three legged T & Y junctions
II. Four legged cross-junctions
III. Multi-legged (>4) junctions
IV. Roundabouts
V. Grade Separation
Types of Intersection
At-grade intersection
Grade separated without ramps, and
Interchanges
Types of at-grade Intersection
Types of at-grade Intersection cont’d
Three forms of priority intersection
Roundabout
Selection of Intersection type
Priority(T-Junction, Cross-Junction) For low
flows. these can causes for long delays. They
require sufficient stopping sight distance.
Delays can be improved by signal installation
Roundabout. These are best for low to
medium flows. They provide for minimum
delays at lower flows
Grade Separation. Recommended only for
high flows, Results in minimal delays,
Expensive, and Pedestrian movements also
need high considerations.
Junction Selection based on traffic flows
T-Junction Selection for varies major
and minor road traffic flows
Intersection(cont’d)
Important factors to be considered in the
selection of an intersection types are
I. Volume of traffic to be accommodated
II. Approached speeds
III. Land use and land availability
IV. Local environment
V. Cost of construction
• Safety at intersection is of key important. In
USA 56% accidents at urban areas & 32% of
all rural accidents occurred at intersections
Intersection(cont’d)
Roundabouts have considerable safety
advantage over other types of at-grade
intersection. Experience in some countries
shows that converting crossroads in to
roundabout can reduce accident costs by
more than 80%.
The design of junction must take account of
the following basic requirements
I. Safety
II. Operational comfort
III. Capacity
IV. Economy
Intersection(cont’d)
The basic objective of good intersection
designs are
I. Reduction of the number of point of potential
conflicts to the minimum combatable with
efficient operation
II. Reduction of complexity of potential areas
whenever possible
III. Limitation of the frequency of conflict
IV. Limitation of the severity of those conflicts
that do occur
T-Junctions
• The basic junction layout type in rural road is T-junction
with the major road traffic having priority over the minor
road traffic.
• Application of T-Junction include the staggered T-Junction
which caters to cross-traffic.
• Regardless of the type of intersection, for safety and
economy, intersecting roads should generally meet at or
nearly at right angles.
Staggered X-Junction[ERA,2013,GDM]
Intersection Terminologies
Design Considerations at-grade
intersection
◦ Human factor: such as driving habits and
decision and reaction times
◦ Traffic considerations: such as capacities and
turning movements, vehicle speeds, and size and
distribution of vehicles
◦ Physical elements: such as characteristics and
use of bordering property, sight distance, and
geometric features
◦ Economic factors: such as costs and benefits
and energy consumption
Intersection Design – Operational
Requirements
Provide adequate sight distance – for approach and
departure maneuvers
Minimize turning and through conflicts
Provide natural paths for permitted movements
Avoid geometry (sharp curves/steep grades) that
complicates the driving task and adversely impact
acceleration/deceleration
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Design Requirement - Safety
Visibility: angle not greater 20 degree from
perpendicular.
Comprehension: similar types of junction,
road sign and markings
Maneuverability: adequate lane width,
turning radius, marking edge of traffic lanes.
Profile
Should facilitate driver’s control of vehicle
Avoid significant changes in grade.
Typically ≤ 3%
Continue major street grade through
intersection
Conflict Areas at Priority
Intersections
Type of Intersection Control
I. No control
II. Yield or stop signs,
III. Channelization,
IV. Roundabouts and
V. Traffic signals.
I. Uncontrolled Intersections
Uncontrolled Intersections have no control at all or
simply provide advice to drivers to give-way or yield on
the basis of priority to the first to arrive at the junction
or traffic on the major road
Such intersections are used where traffic volume is low
Vehicles adjust speed
Driver should perceive a hazard in sufficient time before
reaching the intersection.
The safe stopping distances applied the same as those
used for designing any other section of highway.
Provide control if sight triangle not available
Sight
Triangles
area free of
obstructions
necessary to
complete
maneuver and
avoid collision
– needed for
approach and
departure
Site Distance and Visibility
Visibility
splay for
Yield
Conditions
Visibility
splay for Stop
Condition
La and Ls are
approaching
Allows drivers of stopped vehicles and stop
enough view of the intersection to decide length
when to enter Source: ERA GDM 2013
II. Yield or Stop signs
where traffic on minor
vehicles on minor roadway must roadway must stop prior to
yield to major roadway traffic entering major roadway
Give
Way
II. Stop Control Case
Eliminates crossing & merging conflicts
Three Sub Cases – Maneuvers
Turn left on to major roadway (clear traffic left,
enter traffic right)
Turn right on to major roadway (enter traffic
from left)
Crossing (clear traffic left/right)
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Yield Control Case
Eliminatescrossing conflicts
Used at major road-minor road intersections
Minor Roadway Yields – must be able to see
left/right – adjust speed – possibly stop
Sight distance exceeds that on stop control
Similar to no-control
III. Intersection Channelization
Raised Island or Pavement Markings
Provides clear path for different movements
Gives priority to dominant movements
Provides pedestrian refuge
Provides storage area for turning vehicles
Controls prohibited turns
Restricts speed
Increases capacity, improves safety, provides maximum
convenience, and increases driver confidence.
Examples of Channelization(traffic
island)
VI. Roundabouts
Roundabout are channelized intersections
containing a central circle surrounded by a
one-way roadway.
Naturally, in the case of roundabouts,
entering traffic yields to traffic within.
Generally have good saftey record
IV. Roundabout
Roundabout layout Vehicle path trough
Round About
VI. Roundabout Design
Select the general design criteria to be used
Select the appropriate design vehicle for the site. DV4 for all design standards.
Adopt a minimum design vehicle turning radius. This will generally be 15m radius.
Determine from traffic flows the number of lanes required on entry, exit and circulation
Identify the needs of pedestrians
Identify the location of controls such as right-of-way boundaries, utilities...
Select a trial central island diameter and determine the width needed of the circulating
Carriageway
Draw the roundabout
Check that the size and shape is adequate to accommodate all intersecting legs with
sufficient separations for satisfactory traffic operations
Lay out the entrance/exit islands
Check the achievement of adequate deflection (Figure 12-11). Adjust as required.
Check site distances at approaches and exits.
Layout lane and pavement markings.
Layout lighting plan
Layout sign plan.
V. Traffic signals
When minor road traffic suffers excessive delays
where vehicles on all approaches are required to stop by
either a stop sign or traffic signal
Minimizes the following:
Excessive delays at stop signs and yields
Problems caused by turning movements
Angle and side collision
Pedestrian accidents
Interchanges
An interchange is a specific type of junction where two or
more roads or highways meet, allowing for the transfer of
traffic between them without the need for traffic signals or
stop signs.
Interchanges typically involve ramps, overpasses, and
underpasses.
We use interchanges if
An at-grade junction has insufficient capacity
The junction is justified economically from the savings in
traffic delays and accident costs
Grade separation is cheaper on account of topography or
on the grounds that expensive land appropriation can be
avoided by its construction
For operational reasons
Where roads cross motorways
Interchanges
Interchanges
The primary purpose of an interchange is to facilitate the
smooth flow of traffic between major highways or roads,
enabling vehicles to change routes efficiently.
Interchanges are designed to minimize conflict points and
delays, allowing vehicles to merge and diverge without
stopping.
Factor for location of interchanges
Trip length (travel distance)
Size of urban areas
Predicted traffic volumes
Cost of junction
Congestion control
Grade-Separated Junctions
• Grade-separated junction is a broader term that refers to any
junction where two or more roads cross at different elevations
(grades).
• This can include interchanges but also encompasses other
configurations where roads are separated vertically.
• they may not always facilitate the same level of efficiency in
route changes as interchanges do.
• Types of Grade-Separated Junctions
◦ Three-way junctions; (A & B)
◦ Junctions of major/minor roads; (C & D)
◦ Junctions of two major roads; and (E & F)
◦ Junctions of more than two major roads.
A
B
C
D
E F
