ADVANCE BUSSINESS RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY

ABDISSA DESALEGN (PhD,Asst. Professor) in Business

Management
Manger; RBM Consultancy Service PLC
Certified Business Development Advisor @ UNDP-UNCTAD
Certified CISCO Networking Academy- JIMMA University
E-mail: [email protected]
Tel : 0911956555
DEC,2023
1
By: Abdissa Desalegn (PhD, Asst.Professor)
 Expectations
What I expect of you
- Attendance. I expect you to attend every class.
- Participation. Strongly encouraged

- Mention if you do not understand something and seek

clarification
- Start reading from beginning of the course and not to ward

the end
- Performing individual, group work and assignments on time
What to expect from me
- Lecture notes will be posted/ mailed accordingly
- Exams will be based on text and lecture notes; so even if we
don’t review it in the lecture, if it is in the text, it is fair game
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 “If we knew what we were
doing, it wouldn’t be called
research, would it?”
Albert Einstein

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 CHAPTER ONE
Concepts of Research
Term Research

The term ‘Research’ consists of two wards:

‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’ means to find out
some thing.

The following is the process:

Therefore research is a process of which a person observes the

phenomena again and again and collects the data and on the
basis of data he draws some conclusions.
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 Concepts of Research

 Curiosity(the desire to know about something)

 We are curious to know about ourselves, our institutions,

our environment, our planet, other planets and the universe.

 Questions go on arising in our mind.

 How do such problems (eg. Health) arise?

 Why there is object poverty in our country?
 Why does the performance of similar organizations
vary?
 What are causes of various business problems like
recession?
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 Cont…

 Whenever questions arise we seek answer to them.

 Whenever we encounter problems, we try to find

solutions to them.
 Such seeking answers and solutions is as old as human

civilization.
 A systematic search for an answer to a question or a

solution to a problem is called research

 Research simply means a search for facts- answers to

questions and solutions to problems.

- It is a purposive investigation.
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- It is an organized inquiry. 6
Meaning of Research cont--

 Research is the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough

study and analysis of the situational factors.
 Research is a structured inquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific
methodology to solve problems and creates new knowledge that is
generally applicable.
- Systematic and orderly (following a series of steps)
- Purpose is new knowledge, which must be reliable
 This is a general definition which applies to all disciplines

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 Research comprises

 Research comprises defining and redefining

problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organizing and analyzing data;
making interpretations and reaching conclusions; and
last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
 Research is also defined as search for knowledge
through objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem or developing fundamental
theories.
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 What Research is Not

1. Research isn’t information gathering: Because no

contribution to new knowledge

2. Research isn’t the transportation of facts from one

location to another: still no contribution to new
knowledge although this might make existing
knowledge more accessible. This has missed the
essence of research: the interpretation of data

3. Searching out published research results in libraries

(or the internet)
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 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

 The purpose of research is to discover answers to

questions through the application of scientific
procedures.
 The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is
hidden and which has not been discovered as yet.
Though each research study has its own specific purpose,
we may think of research objectives as falling into a
number of following broad groupings:
 1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve
new insights into it (studies with this object in view are
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Cont…

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular

individual, situation or a group (studies with this object in view are
known as descriptive research studies);

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with

which it is associated with something else (studies with this object
in view are known as diagnostic or laboratory research studies);

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

(such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
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Research and the Scientific Method

 The two terms Research and scientific methods are

closely related.
 Research, as we have already stated, can be termed as
“an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the
consequences of any particular set of circumstances,
whether these circumstances are experimentally
controlled or recorded just as they occur.
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 Scientific Method

 The analysis and interpretation of empirical

evidence (facts from observation or
experimentation) to confirm or disprove prior
conceptions.
 The scientific method as practiced in business
research guides our approach to problem
solving.

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 Characteristics of Research

 From the above definitions it is clear that research is a process for

collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer
questions.
 But to qualify as a research, a process must have certain
characteristics as listed below:
- Controlled: the study must be set in way that minimizes the effects of
other factors affecting relationship
- Rigorous: One must be very careful (scrupulous) in ensuring that the
procedures followed to find answers to questions are relevant,
appropriate and justified.
- Systematic: the procedure adopted to undertake as investigation
follow certain logical sequence. Different steps can not be undertaken
in a haphazard way.
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Cont….
 Valid and verifiable: This concept implies that whatever you
conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and can be verified
by you and others
 Empirical: This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon
hard evidence gathered from information collected from real life
experiences or observations.
 Critical : The methods employed and procedures used should be
critically scrutinized. The process of investigation must be foolproof
and free from any drawbacks. The process adopted and the
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procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
 Motivations in Research
What makes people to undertake research? The possible motives for doing research may
be either one or more of the following among others:

 Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits

(financial benefits and respect);
 Desire to face the challenges in solving the unresolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical problems initiates research;
 Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some innovative and creative work;
 Desire to be of service to society;
 Desire to get respectability.

How ever this is not an exhaustive list of factors.

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 Why is it important for you/ student/ managers to know about how
Business research is done?

 Business competition- to gain competitive

advantage
 Solve problems-to solve organizational problems
 Decision making tool
 Risk
 Investment
 Hire researchers and consultants more effectively
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Why is research conducted
Research conducted for a number of reasons, which in turn
depend on the objectives any particular research problem.

In the business arena, however, research tends to be

undertaken in order to achieve one or more of the following
objectives:
 To gain competitive advantage
 To test new products and services
 To solve organizational problems
 To forecast future sales
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 Why is research conducted cont---
 To better understand shifts in customer attitudes
and tastes
 To enhance profitability
 To reduce operational costs
 To enable management to priorities strategic
options for the future

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Research Methods & Research Methodology
 Many authors use these terms interchangeably. They
are not the same thing. We must know the difference.
 Research methods is a way of conducting and
implementing research. A techniques or specific
activities used to generate and analyze data (e.g.
questionnaires, interviews, focused groups, observation)
 Research methodology is a body of practices,
procedures, and rules used by researcher to offer
insights in to the working of the world. It is about your
understanding of research and the strategy you choose
to answer research questions.
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 Types of Research

There are different bases in classifying researches;

however we will see only the most common bases and
these classifications which are relevant to our
syllabus.
First, there are two broad classification of research that
follows:
 Research in physical sciences
 Research in social sciences

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 Cont..
 Physical sciences deal with things, which can be
put to laboratory tests under guided conditions.
These researches deal with physical phenomena
upon which man has complete control.

 Researches in social sciences are based on

human behavior, which is influenced by so many
factors, such as physical, social, temperamental,
psychological and economic.

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 Social Research

 It is the scientific investigation conduced in the

field of social sciences and also in behavioral
sciences
 Social research is part of research, which studies
human behavior on a part of society. Social
research is to find explanation to unexplained
social phenomena, to clarify doubts and correct
the misconceived facts of social life.

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 Business and social research
 There are several types of research and each types
of research is associated with particular scientific
tools; we will discuss this in the next chapters
 The question here is about social and business
research?
 Business research deals with business phenomenon
such as price, supply of commodity, sales,
market----.
 Social research deals with people who lives in
society, their culture and daily life.

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 Classification of Research
Research can also be classified from other
three perspectives. However, these
perspectives are not mutually exclusive .
1. The application of the research study;
2. The objectives in undertaking the research ;
and
3. The type of information sought.

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 Based on application of the
research study
1.Applied research
 Focuses on a real-life problem or situation with a

view to helping reach a decision how to deal with it

(specific). Concerned with the solution to
particular problems.
 Is done to solve specific, practical questions; for

policy formulation, administration and

understanding of a phenomenon.

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 CONT…
2.Basic research (fundamental, pure)
 Aims to expand the frontiers of science and

knowledge by verifying or disproving the

acceptability of a given theory or attempting to
discover more about certain concept (non-
specific).
 Involves developing and testing theories and

hypothesis that are intellectually challenging to

the researcher but may not have practical
application at the present time or in the future.
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 Basic Research

 It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge

without any intention to apply it in practice.
 It is also known as pure or fundamental research.
 It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity.
 It is not necessarily problem oriented.
 It aims at extension of knowledge.
 It may lead to either discovery of a new theory or
refinement of an existing theory.
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 Applied Research

 It is carried on to find solution to a real-life

problem requiring an action or policy decision.
 It is thus problem-oriented and action-directed.
 It seeks an immediate and practical results.
 There is vast scope for applied research in the
fields of management, accounting and finance,
economics and other disciplines.
 Numerous problems are faced in these areas.
 They need empirical study for finding solutions.
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 Cont…
 Though the immediate purpose of an applied
research is to find solutions to a practical
problems,
 it may incidentally contribute to the
development of theoretical knowledge by
leading to the discovery of new facts or testing
of a theory or to conceptual clarity.

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 Classification based on Objectives of the study
 Descriptive Research : attempts to describe
systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon,
service or program, or provides information
about, say, living condition of community, or
describes attitudes to wards an issue. More
concerned with facts.
 Correlational Research: attempts to discover or
establish the existence of a relationship/
interdependence between two or more aspects of
a situation.
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 Classification based on Objectives
of the study
 Explanatory Research: attempts to clarify why and how there
is a relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or
phenomenon.
- Seeks explanation of observed phenomenon or behavior. Explain
about theories, principles and laws
 Exploratory Research: is undertaken to explore an area where

little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking

a particular research study (Feasibility study/ pilot study).
- to generate some initial idea about the phenomenon.

- To test the feasibility of the study

In practice most studies are a combination of the first three

categories.
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 Classification based on the type of information
Sought
 Quantitative Research: is applicable to
phenomenon that are measurable so that they can
be expressed in terms of quantity.
 Qualitative Research: is concerned with
qualitative phenomenon. Research designed to find
out how people feel or what they think about a
particular subject is a qualitative research.
 It is important in the behavioral sciences where the
aim is to discover underlying motives of human
behavior.

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 Cont…
 It is usual for business research to mix methods
of data collection. One reasons for this is
“triangulation” methods enriches the collected
data.
 Triangulation provides a check on findings
from particular methods

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 Significance of Research
 Research inculcates scientific and inductive
thinking and it promotes the development of
logical habits of thinking and organization.
 Research becomes an important aid in solving
operational problems. This is due to the
increasingly complex nature of business and
government. Furthermore, research is helpful aid
in economic policy.
 Research provides the basis for nearly all
government policies in our economic system.
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 Significance of Research
 Research has its special significance in solving
various operational and planning problems of
business and industry.
 Research is equally important for social scientists in
studying social relationships and in seeking answers
to various social problems.
 Research may mean careerism or a way to attain a
high position in the social structure particularly for
those students of Masters or PhD.
 Research may mean a source of livelihood for those
professionals in research methodology.
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 Significance of Research
 Research may mean the outlet for new ideas
and insights for philosophers and thinkers.
 Research may mean the development of new
styles and creative work to literary person.
 Research may mean the generalization of
new theories to analysts and intellectuals.
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 .

Business Research

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 What is Business Research?
 The task of business research is to
generate accurate information for use in
decision-making to successfully deal
with problems.
 The emphasis of business research is on

shifting decision-makers from intuitive

information gathering to systematic and
objective investigation.
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 Business Research
 Business research is defined as the
systematic and objective process of
generating information for aid in
making business decisions.
- Including financial research,
operational research, Marketing
research
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Scope of Business Research
 The scope of business research is limited by one's
definition of "business."
 Certainly research in the production, finance,
marketing, or management areas of a for-profit
corporation is within the scope of business
research.
 A broader definition of business, however,
includes not-for-profit organizations.
 Each of these organizations exists to satisfy social
needs, and they require business skills to produce
and distribute the services that people want.
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 Business research may be conducted by organizations that
are not business organizations.
 Federal government, for example, performs many
functions that are similar, if not identical, to those of
business organizations.
 Federal managers may use research techniques for
evaluative purposes much the same way as managers
in business.
 The term business research is utilized because all its
techniques are applicable to business settings.
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 When is Business Research
Used?
 Typically, business research methods are used in
situations of uncertainty, that is, when decision-
makers face two or more courses of action and
seek to select the best possible alternative under
the circumstances.
 Business Research is hence aimed at improving
the quality of decision-making which, in turn,
benefits the organization and helps ensure its
continuity and efficiency

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 Determining When to Conduct Business Research

 Time constraints
 Availability of data
 Nature of the decision
 Benefits versus costs

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When Should Business Research be Undertaken?

Is sufficient time
available?

Yes

Is information
inadequate? NO Do not
undertake Business Research
Yes

High importance
of decision?

Yes

Research benefits
greater than costs? Undertake Business Research

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 Purpose of Business Research
Business research is often used to help a manager
decide which of several tactics is likely to successfully
execute the desired strategy.
• To identify and define opportunities and problems.
• To define, monitor, and refine strategies
• To define, monitor, and refine tactics

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 Typical Users of Business
Research Methods
 Businesses and Corporations
 Public-Sector Agencies
 Consulting Firms
 Research Institutes
 Non-Governmental Organizations
 Non-Profit Organizations
 Independent Researchers and Consultants

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Fields Where Business Research is Often Used – (1)
General Business Conditions and Financial and Accounting
Corporate Research Research

 Short- & Long-Range Forecasting,  Forecasts of financial interest rate

 Business and Industry Trends trends,
 Global Environments
 Stock,bond and commodity value
predictions
 Inflation and Pricing  capital formation alternatives
 Plant and Warehouse Location  mergers and acquisitions
 Acquisitions  risk-return trade-offs
 portfolio analysis
Management and Organizational  impact of taxes
Behaviour Research  research on financial institutions
 expected rate of return
• Total Quality Management  capital asset pricing models
• Morale and Job Satisfaction  credit risk
• Leadership Style  cost analysis
• Employee Productivity
• Organizational Effectiveness
• Structural ssues
• Absenteeism and turnover
• Organizational Climate

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Fields Where Business Research is Often Used – (2)
Sales and Marketing Research Information Systems Research

 Market Potentials
 Knowledge and information needs
assessment
 Market Share  Computer information system use
 Market segmentation and evaluation
 Market characteristics  Technical suppot satisfaction
 Sales Analysis  Database analysis
 Establishment of sales quotas
 Data mining
 Enterprise resource planning systems
 Distribution channels  Customer relationship management
 New product concepts systems
 Test markets
 Advertising research Corporate Responsibility
 Buyer behaviour Research
 Customer satisfaction  Ecological Impact
 Website visitation rates  Legal Constraints on advertising and
promotion
 Sex, age and racial discrimination /
worker equity
 Social values and ethics

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 Types of business research

 Classifying business research on the basis of

purpose or function allows us to understand how
the nature of the problem influences the choice of
research method.
 The nature of the problem will determine whether

the research is
- Exploratory
- Descriptive, or
- Casual

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 Exploratory research

 It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem

about which the researcher has little or no
knowledge.
 It is similar to a doctor’s initial investigation of a
patient suffering from a unfamiliar
malady(iliness) for getting some clues for
identifying it.
 It is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-
determined objectives.
 It is usually takes the form of a pilot study.
11/12/2024 51
 cont…
 Though it is a separate type of research, it is
appropriate to consider it as the first stage of a
three-stage process of exploration, description
and experimentation.
 Exploratory research is necessary to get initial
insight into the problems for the purpose of
formulating them for more precise investigation.
 It helps to determine the best research design,
data collection methods, and selection of subjects.

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 Purposes of an exploratory research
 To generate new ideas or
 To increase the researcher’s familiarity with the
problem or
 To make a precise formulation of the problem or
 To gather information for clarifying concepts or
 To determine whether it is feasible to attempt the
study.

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 Example of Exploratory Research
 Our sales are declining and we don’t know why?
 Would people be interested in our new product
idea?

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 Descriptive research
 It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate
interpretation.
 It is more specific than an exploratory study, as is
has focus on particular aspects or dimensions of the
problem studied.
 It is designed to gather descriptive information and
provides information for formulating more
complicated studies.
 Data are collected by using one or more appropriate
methods: observation, interview, questionnaire.
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 Criteria for descriptive research

 All problems do not lend themselves to descriptive study.

 This method is applicable to problems satisfy certain
criteria.
 First, the problem must be describable and not arguable.
 Second, the data should be amenable to an accurate,
objective, and, if possible, quantitative assemblage for
reliability and significance.
 Third, it should be possible to develop valid standards of
comparison.
 Last, it should lend itself to verifiable procedure of
collection and analysis of data.
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 Objective of descriptive research

 It aims at identifying the various characteristics

of a phenomenon or community or institutions
or problem under study.
 But it does not deal with the testing of
hypotheses.
 However, it can reveal potential relationships
between variables, thus setting the stage for
more elaborate investigation later.

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 Example of descriptive research
 What kind of people are buying our product?
Who buys our competitor’s product?
 What features do buyers prefer in our product?

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 Casual research

 Causal research seeks to identify cause-and-effect

relationships.
 When something causes an effect, it means it
brings it about or makes it happen.
 The effect is the outcome.
 Rain causes grass to get wet.
Rain is the cause and wet grass is the effect.
 Exploratory research builds the foundation for
descriptive research, which usually establishes
the basis for causal research.
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 Cont…
 Thus, before causal studies are undertaken, researchers
typically have a good understanding of the phenomena
being studied.
 Because of this, the researcher can make an educated
prediction about the cause-and-effect relationships that will
be tested.
 Although greater knowledge of the situation is a good thing,
it doesn’t come without a price.
 Causal research designs can take a long time to implement.
 Also, they often involve complex designs that can be very
expensive.

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 Example causal research
 Will buyers purchase more of our products in a
new package?
 Which of two advertising campaigns is more
effective?

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 Ethics in Business Research
 In doing any research there is an ethical
responsibility to do the work honestly and with
integrity. If you do not conduct your work in an
ethical manner you will fail. This will apply to all
stages of the research cycle.

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 Research Ethics
 Being selective in sampling
 Not reporting survey response/participation rate
 Deliberately biasing the data collection instruments
 Falsifying the results
 Trimming- removing data that does not fit in with
your analysis
 Biased or inappropriate analysis
 Plagiarism- passing off someone else’s work as
your own

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 CHAPTER THREE

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

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 THE RESEARCH PROCESS/ A
general Model
 The research process is similar to undertaking a
journey.
 For research journey there are two important
decisions to make
1. What you want to find out about (research
problem)
2. How to go about finding their answers (research
methods/ methodology)

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 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
1. Identification and Formulation of research problem
2. Review of literature
3. Hypothesis Development
4. Research Design
5. Population and Sampling
6. Data Collection and Construction Tools
7. Hypothesis Testing
8. Data Processing, Data Analysis and Interpretation

9. Preparation of Report/Research Proposal/Thesis

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 .

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 THE RESEARCH PROCESS/ A general
Model/
 Research process consists of series of actions or steps
necessary to effectively carry out research and the desired
sequencing of these steps.
 These activities indeed overlap continuously rather than
following a strictly prescribed sequence.
 Specific steps guide the research process
 Number of steps is indeterminate
 Various steps may be combined
 Order of steps may vary somewhat
 Importance of specific steps is variable
 “7- 12 Steps of Research”
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 RESEARCH PROCESS
FF
Review the literature
FF

Review
Concepts Analyse
Design
And Collect Data
Research Interpret
Define theories Formulate Data (Test
(Including and
Research hypothesis (Execution) Hypothesis
Sample report
Problem if any)
Review Design)
F F
Previous
I Research III IV V
findings VI VII

II
F

F Feed Back
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FF Feed Forward 69
11/12/2024 70
 1. Identification and Formulation of research problem

 "Well begun is half done" --Aristotle, quoting an

old proverb

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 Importance of formulating a
research problem
The formulation of a research problem is the first
and most important step of the research process.
This is more like identifying a destination prior
to beginning a journey.
A research problem is like the foundation of a
building. The type and architecture of the
building depends on the foundations. If the
foundation is well designed and strong, one can
expect the building to be strong as well.
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 RESEARCH PROBLEM

What is a research problem?

 The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue to be

examined.

 Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need

which a researcher experiences in the context of either
theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for the same.

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 HOW DO WE KNOW WE HAVE A
RESEARCH PROBLEM?
Customer complaints
 Conversation with company employees
 Observation of inappropriate behavior or conditions

in the firm
 Deviation from the business plan
 Success of the firm’s competitor’s
 Relevant reading of published material (trends,

regulations)
 Company records and reports.
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 The first step in the research process – definition
of the problem involves two activities:

Identification / Selection of the Problem

Formulation of the Problem

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 IDENTIFICATION / SELECTION OF THE
RESEARCH PROBLEM

 This step involves identification of a few

problems and selection of one out of them, after
evaluating the alternatives against certain
selection criteria.

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 SOURCES OF PROBLEMS

 Reading
 Academic Experience
 Daily Experience
 Exposure to Field Situations
 Consultations
 Brainstorming
 Research
 Intuition
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 Sources of research problem
Problems that we can investigate are all around us.
They come from:
 Reading about a topic you are interested in

 Academic Experience

 Daily Experience

 Exposure to field situations

 Consultations

 Brain storming (speaking with experts in the

field you are interested in

 Research more investigating the work of others
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 Every research study has two
aspects
1. Study population
People: individuals, organizations, groups,
communities.
(They provide you information or you collect
information about them)
2. Subject area
Problem: issue, situations, associations, needs, profile
Program: content, structure, outcomes, satisfactions,
service so on
Phenomenon: cause and effect relationship
11/12/2024 79
 Research Problem

"Problem Statement" is a description of a difficulty or

lack that needs to be researched to see whether a
solution can be found. It can also be described as
either a gap between the real and the desired or a
contradiction between principle and practice, or a
contraction between different findings.
In other words, research problem is an interrogative
statement which asks about the presumed relationship
between two or more variables that create a particular
state of affairs.
11/12/2024 80
 CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

 Clear and Unambiguous

 Empirical
 Verifiable
 Interesting
 Novel and Original
 Availability of Guidance

11/12/2024 81
 Nature and Scope of the Research Problem

What is the overriding problem?

Retention, inability to adapt to change, poor working conditions,
inequalities, poor financial conditions in the a firm, deficits,
conflict of interest, lack of evaluation of a program, inefficiencies,
fraud, poor revenue, increasing cost…
Where is the problem found?
Manufacturing, banking, Nigerian capital market, oil and gas
industry, government, corporate Nigeria, …
What needs to be done to solve the problem?
Survey, ex post factor, create a new model, conduct an
experiment, benchmark, meta-analysis/synthesis…

11/12/2024 82
 Types of Research Problem

 Conceptual problem- two findings that

are conceptually or theoretically
inconsistent.
 Practical problem- Undesirable outcome

in a system hampering the attainment of

desired objectives.
 Knowledge gap- Vacuum that needs to be

filled in a body of knowledge.

11/12/2024 83
Factors to consider in selecting a research problem

 Interest- Interesting to the researcher and suit

his/her skills, time and resources
 Originality-should be sufficiently original

and does not involve objectionable

duplication.
 Researchability-must be empirically

researchable.
 Significance-must be significant capable of

extending the frontiers of knowledge.

11/12/2024 84
 Factors to consider in selecting a research
problem
 Feasibility-Research into the problem must be feasible
in terms of availability of data and access to it,
availability of funds and time to do justice to the topic
and researcher’s competence to handle tools of analysis.
 Open mind-The researcher should have an open mind
on the problem.
 Knowledge gap-Existence of vacuum in the body of
knowledge.
 Ethics- Researching into the problem should not
involved any ethical violation.

11/12/2024 85
 Steps in the formulating a research problem

 Developing Title
 Building a conceptual model
 Defining the Objective of the Study
 Setting Investigative Questions
 Formulation of Hypotheses
 Operational Definition of Concepts
 Delimiting the Scope of the Study
 Limitation of the study

11/12/2024 86
 Activities
 Describe why a research problem is the heart of
the research process.
 Do you agree that formulating research problem
should be the first thing to do in undertaking a
research thesis? Discuss.
 What is your proposed research topic and how
did you state the problem?
11/12/2024 87
 Delimiting the Scope of the Study:
 This means demarcation of the scope and
dimensions of the study.
 A beginner is especially over-ambitious.
 He is tempted to cover too wide a scope without
knowing its complex implications.
 For example, a student may say that he wants to
study the problem of unemployment in his Region
for his Master thesis.
 Can it be possible to complete this study on his own
within a period of 3 months?
 The problem is complex and it is related to various
categories of occupational groups.
11/12/2024 88
 Delimitation:
Delimitations define the scope of the study. That is, they set
the boundaries of the study
 Normally under control of the researcher

It covers several aspects: extent, causes, impacts and

remedial measures.

Examples include
 Number and kinds of subjects

 Treatment conditions

 Tests, measures, instruments used

 Type of equipment

 Location, environmental setting

 Type of training (time and duration)

11/12/2024 89
 Delimiting/ the Scope of the
Study:
 Data has to be collected from government
institutions and individuals.
 Even a sample survey may require a large staff of
field investigators.
 Therefore, a research should take a close view of
the implications and dimensions of the selected
problem and keep the scope of its study within
manageable limits, i.e., within the ability of the
mind to grasp the implications and within the
amount of time and other resources available.
11/12/2024 90
 Limitation of the study
Limitations are very similar to delimitations, but they
tend to focus on potential weaknesses of the study
Examples include
 sampling problems (representativeness of subjects)

 uncontrolled factors and extraneous variables

 faulty research design and techniques

 reliability and validity of measuring instruments

 compromises to internal/external validity

 Limitation in literature

 Limitation in methodology

11/12/2024 91
 Cont…
 Mostly we say time. Not good
 But be careful in stating limitation
 In general it is Possible shortcomings of the
study . . . usually cannot be controlled by the
researcher
 the researcher will, of course, try to eliminate
extremely serious weaknesses before the
study is commenced
 May be a result of assumptions not being met
 No study is perfect; the researcher recognizes
the weaknesses

11/12/2024 92
 Organization of the study
 The study includes five major
chapters

11/12/2024 93
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

 Literature review examines recent (or

historically significant)research studies,
company data, or industry reports that act as a
basis for the proposed study
 Essential preliminary task in order to acquaint

your self with the available body of knowledge

in your area of interest.

11/12/2024 94
 Why Literature review
 To identify knowledge gap
 Defining concept
 E.g., peace ,love
 Theoretical frame work
 Professional paper
 A good insight, Doesn’t need to talk about
contribution of the knowledge in the literature.
 Academician paper
 Must tell where is the knowledge gap to the
contribution

11/12/2024 95
 cont…
 The review describes theoretical
perspectives and previous research
findings regarding the problem at hand.
 Its function is to ‘look again’ (re + view)

at what others have done in areas that are

similar though not necessarily identical
to, one’s own area of investigation.

11/12/2024 96
 Cont…
 It is desirable to examine both
conceptual and empirical literatures.
 The conceptual literature is one which
deals with concepts and theories.
 Empirical literature is that which
contains studies made earlier and so it
consists of many facts and figures
observed in the earlier studies.

11/12/2024 97
 PURPOSE OF REVIEW

 To gain a background knowledge of the research

topic.
 To identify the concepts relating to it, potential

relationships between them and to formulate

researchable hypothesis.
 To identify appropriate methodology, research design,

methods of measuring concepts and techniques of

analysis.
 To identify data sources used by other researchers.
 To learn how others structured their reports.

11/12/2024 98
 Hart (1998) contributes additional reasons for reviewing
the literature, including

 Distinguishing what has been done from what needs to be done,

 Discovering important variables relevant to the topic,
 Synthesizing and gaining a new perspective,
 Identifying relationships between ideas and practices,
 Establishing the context of the topic or problem,
 Rationalizing the significance of the problem,
 Enhancing and acquiring the subject vocabulary,
 Understanding the structure of the subject,
 Relating ideas and theory to applications, and
 Identifying the main methodologies and research techniques that
have been used,
11/12/2024 99
 SOURCES OF LITERATURE

 Books and Journals

 Electronic Databases
Bibliographic Databases
Abstract Databases
Full-Text Databases
 Govt. and Industry Reports
 Internet
 Research Dissertations / Thesis

11/12/2024 100
 Steps for Writing a Lit Review
 Planning
 Reading and Research
 Analyzing
 Drafting
 Revising

11/12/2024 101
 How to write the review?

There are several ways of presenting the ideas of

others within the body of the paper.

For Example; If you are referring the major

influencing factors in the Sheth’s model of Industrial
Buying Behaviour, it can be written as,

1)Sheth (1973, p-50) has suggested that, there are a

number of influencing factors ……..
2)According to Sheth (1973) model of industrial
buying behaviour, there are a number of influencing
factors……..
11/12/2024 102
 How to write the review?

3)In
some models of industrial buying behaviour,
there are a number of influencing factors (Sheth, 1973).

4)In
some models of industrial buying behaviour,
there are a number of influencing factors1.

Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of Industrial Buying

1.
Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-56.

11/12/2024 103
 Points to be kept in mind while
reviewing literature..

 Read relevant literature.

 Refer original works.
 Read with comprehension.
 Read in time.
 Index the literature.

11/12/2024 104
 Common Errors Made in Lit
Reviews
 Review isn’t logically organized
 Review isn’t focused on most important
facets of the study
 Review doesn’t relate literature to the
study
 Too few references or outdated references
cited
 Review isn’t written in author’s own words
 Review doesn’t argue a point
 Recent references are omitted
11/12/2024 105
 Plagiarism in literature review
 Using another writer’s words without proper
citation
 Using another writer’s ideas without proper citation
 Citing a source but reproducing the exact word
without quotation marks
 Borrowing the structure of another author’s
phrases/sentences without giving the source
 Borrowing all or part of another student’s paper
 Using paper-writing service or having a friend
write the paper
11/12/2024 106
 3. Hypothesis Development and Testing
 Working hypotheses is tentative assumption
made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences.
 Hypotheses affect the manner in which tests must
be conducted in the analysis of data and
indirectly the quality of data which is required
for the analysis.
 Hypotheses should be very specific and limited
to the piece of research in hand because it has to
be tested
11/12/2024 107
 HYPOTHESIS

 A hypothesis is an assumption about relations

between variables.

 Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured

relationship between two or more variables expressed
in the form of a testable statement.

Relationships are conjectured on the basis of

the network of associations established in the
theoretical framework formulated for the research
study.
11/12/2024 108
 Types of Variables

 Explanatory vs Extraneous Variable

The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory
variables and all other variables that are not related to the purpose
of the study but may affect the dependant variable are extraneous.

 Dependant vs Independent Variable

The variable that changes in relationship to changes in
another variable(s) is called dependant variable.
The variable whose change results in the change in another
variable is called an independent variable.
OR
An independent variable is the one that influences the
dependant variable in either a positive or negative way.
11/12/2024 109
 HYPOTHESIS

 Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement

that relates an independent variable to a
dependent variable.
Hypothesis must contain at least one
independent variable and one dependent
variable.

11/12/2024 110
 HYPOTHESIS

 Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the

solution of the problem.
 Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It

describes in concrete terms what you expect to happen

in the study.
 Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of

the study.
 It delimits the area of research and keeps the

researcher on the right track.

11/12/2024 111
 Cont…
 You test hypothesis by collecting information that
will enable you to conclude if your hunch was right.
 Your hunch may prove to be:

1. Right
2. Partially right; or
3. Wrong

 With out this process of verification, you cannot

conclude anything about the validity of your
assumption.
11/12/2024 112
 CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

 Conceptual Clarity - It should be clear and precise.

 Specificity - It should be specific and limited in scope.

 Consistency - It should be consistent with the

objectives of research.

 Testability - It should be capable of being tested.

 Expectancy - It should state the expected relationships

between variables.
11/12/2024 113
 CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

 Simplicity - It should be stated as far as possible in

simple terms.
 Objectivity - It should not include value judgments,

relative terms or any moral preaching.

 Theoretical Relevance - It should be consistent with a

substantial body of established or known facts or existing

theory.
 Availability of Techniques – Statistical methods should

be available for testing the proposed hypothesis.

11/12/2024 114
 SOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS
 Discussions with colleagues and experts about the
problem, its origin and objectives in seeking a
solution.
 Examination of data and records for possible
trends, peculiarities.
 Review of similar studies.
 Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.
 Logical deduction from the existing theory.
 Continuity of research.
 Intuition and personal experience.
11/12/2024 115
 Importance of Hypotheses
 It provides direction to research
 It sensitizes the investigator to certain
aspects of the situations which are relevant
from the standpoint of the problem in hand
 It is a guide to the thinking process and the
process of discovery
 It focuses research.
 It prevents blind research
 It sensitizes the individual facts and
conditions that might otherwise be
overlooked.
11/12/2024 116
 Importance of Hypotheses
 It places clear and specific goals before the researcher.
 It serves the function of linking together related facts and
information and organizing them into one comprehensive
whole.
 It enables the investigator to understand with greater
clarity his problem and its consequences, as well as the
data which beat it.
 It serves as a framework for drawing conclusions
 A hypothesis may enable you to add to the formulation of
theory and help you to bridge the gaps in the body of
knowledge

11/12/2024 117
 Types of Hypotheses
 Null hypothesis
Symbol = Ho

 Alternate hypothesis
Symbol = H1, Ha, etc.
- Non directional (two-way)
- Directional (one-way)

11/12/2024 118
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

 Descriptive Hypothesis
These are assumptions that describe the
characteristics (such as size, form or distribution)
of a variable. The variable may be an object,
person, organization, situation or event.

Examples:
 “Public enterprises are more amenable for
centralized planning”.

11/12/2024 119
 Relational Hypothesis [Explanatory Hypothesis]
These are assumptions that describe the
relationship between two variables. The
relationship suggested may be positive, negative or
causal relationship.
Examples:
 “Families with higher incomes spend more for
recreation”.
Causal Hypothesis state that the existence of or
change in one variable causes or leads to an effect
on another variable. The first variable is called the
independent variable and the latter is the
dependent variable.
11/12/2024 120
 Null Hypothesis

When a hypothesis is stated negatively, it is

called null hypothesis. It is a ‘no difference’, ‘no
relationship’ hypothesis. ie., It states that, no
difference exists between the parameter and
statistic being compared to or no relationship exists
between the variables being compared.
It is usually represented as HO or H0 .

Example:
 H0: There is no relationship between a family’s
income and expenditure on recreation.
11/12/2024 121
  Alternate Hypothesis
It is the hypothesis that describes the
researcher’s prediction that, there exist a
relationship between two variables or it is the
opposite of null hypothesis. It is represented as
HA or H1.

Example:
H A: There is a definite relationship
between family’s income and expenditure on
recreation.
11/12/2024 122
 Sources of hypotheses

 Theory
 Observation
 Analogies
 Personal experiences
 Findings of previous studies
 State of knowledge
 Continuity of research

11/12/2024 123
 Testing Hypothesis Involves
 Deducing the consequences that should be
observable if the hypothesis is correct.
 Selecting the research methods that will permit
the observation, experimentation, or other
procedures necessary to show whether or not
these do occur.
 Applying this method and gathering the data that
can be analyzed to indicate whether or not the
hypothesis is supported.

11/12/2024 124
 Procedures for Hypotheses Testing
 To test hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of
the data the researcher has collected) whether or
not the hypothesis seems to be valid.
 Procedures in hypothesis testing refers to all
those steps that we undertake for making a
choice between the two actions i.e., rejection and
acceptance of a null hypothesis
11/12/2024 125
 Procedures for Hypotheses
Testing

Hypothesis testing is a four-step procedure

1.Stating the hypothesis (Null or Alternative)

2.Setting the criteria for a decision

3.Collecting data

4.Evaluate the Null hypothesis

11/12/2024 126
 FORMS OF RELATIONSHIPS

NON-DIRECTIONAL Vs DIRECTIONAL

 There IS a relationship • If X goes up, Y ….

between • or
 X&Y • As X increases, Y…
• X = Independent
 X….linked….Y • variable
• Y = Dependent variable

11/12/2024 127
 DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES-
“X” causes “Y” to change

 If X changes
 (increases
 decreases)
 then
 Y will ______
 (increase or
 decrease)
 a causal link

11/12/2024 128
 DIRECTION OF RELATIONSHIP

 If X increases, Y increases
 A POSITIVE relationship
 If X increase, Y decreases
 A NEGATIVE or INVERSE
relationship
 As X changes, Y does NOT change...>
 No Change...>NO RELATIONSHIP

11/12/2024 129
 NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES
- the weakest form

 There Is
 a relationship
 between X & Y
 non-causal
 correlational

statement
 X…..Y

11/12/2024 130
 CORRELATIONAL RELATIONSHIP
Positive correlation

70
 When the values of 60

50 Hr
 TWO variables work
40
Earnin
 “go together” 30 gs

 or 20

 values on X & Y 10

0
 change in SAME
 DIRECTION

11/12/2024 131
 Negative Correlation

120
 When the values of
100
two variables
80
 CO-VARY Hrs
work
60
Earnin
 in Opposite direction 40 gs

20
 (as one goes up, 0

 the other goes down)

11/12/2024 132
 Errors in Hypothesis Testing
 Type I and type II errors
 Two types of errors can be expected when you accept or reject
your hypothesis .
 Type I Error:
 Rejection of a true null hypothesis is called the type I error
 A type I error occurs when the null hypothesis (H0) is
wrongly rejected.
 The subsequent results might not produce the result observed
in the original investigation.
 For example, A type I error would occur if we concluded that
the two drugs produced different effects when in fact there
was no difference between them.
11/12/2024 133
 Cont….
 Type II Error:
 Retention of false null hypothesis is called the type II
error.
 A type II error occurs when the null hypothesis (H0), is
not rejected when it is in fact false.
 The ultimate truth remains unknown although evidence
might support an alternative hypothesis.
 For example: A type II error would occur if it was
concluded that the two drugs produced the same effect,
that is, there is no difference between the two drugs on
average, when in fact they produced different ones.
11/12/2024 134
 Errors in Hypothesis Testing
When a hypothesis is tested, there are four
possible outcomes:
 The hypothesis is true but our test leads

to its rejection.
 The hypothesis is false but our test leads

to its acceptance.
 The hypothesis is true and our test leads

to its acceptance.
 The hypothesis is false and our test leads

to its rejection.
11/12/2024 135
 Cont….
Your Actual Health

sick well

What Sick You are sick. Doctor Get scared for

doctor confirms it RIGHT nothing! WRONG-
says Type I error

well Doctor missed your You’re really not

real illness! WRONG- sick! RIGHT
Type II error.

11/12/2024 136
 To Generalize
Decision Ho True Ho False

Reject Ho Type I error Correct

p=α decision
p = 1 -β=
POWER

Fail to Reject Correct Type II error

Ho decision p=β
p = 1 -α

11/12/2024 137
 Cont…
 A type I error is often considered to be more
serious, and therefore more important to avoid,
than a type II error.
 Hypothesis cannot be proved or disproved; but
only supported or not supported.

11/12/2024 138
 4. Research Design
 “You cannot put the same shoe on
every foot” Syrus

11/12/2024 139
11/12/2024 140
 Research Design

 Research design is the important step in any research work.

 After the researcher has formulated the research problem, the
research design must be developed.
 RESEARCH DESIGN refers to the plan, structure, and strategy
of research conceived so as to obtain answers to research
questions--the blueprint that will guide the research process.
 Research design is the conceptual structure within which
research would be conducted.
 A research design is a master plan specifying the methods and
procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information.

11/12/2024 141
 Cont…
 It constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measuring and analysis of data.
 It is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation
conceived so as to obtain answers to research
questions.
 It is a framework of the research plan of action. It
includes an outline of what the investigator will do,
from writing the hypotheses and their operational
implications to the final analysis of data.

11/12/2024 142
Need for research design
Research design is needed because:
 It facilitates the smooth sailing of the research

operation.
 It makes research project as efficient as possible and

help to yield maximum information with minimum

expenditure, time and effort.
 It helps the researcher to organize his ideas in a form

where by it will be possible for him to look for

flaws(mistake) and inadequacies.
 It will be given to others for their comment and critical

evaluation.
 In absence of such course of action, it will be difficult

for the critics to provide comprehensive review of the

proposed study.
11/12/2024 143
 Important features of research
design
 The design is an activity-and –time based
plan.
 The design is always based on the research
question.
 The design guides the selection of sources
and types of information.
 The design is a framework for specifying the
relationships among the study’s variables.
 The design outlines procedure for every
research activity.
11/12/2024 144
 Features of Good Research Design

 The design which minimizes bias and maximizes

the reliability of the data collected and analyzed is
considered a good design.
 A research design appropriate for a particular
research problem, usually involves the
consideration of the following factors:
 the means of obtaining information
 the availability and skills of the researcher

 the objective of the problem to be studied

 The availability of time and money for the research

work
11/12/2024 145
 Essentials of a good research design
 It is a plan that specifies the objectives of the
study and the hypotheses to be tested.
 It is an outline that specifies the sources and types
of information relevant to the research questions.
 It is a blueprint specifying the methods to be
adopted for gathering and analyzing the data.
 It is a scheme defining the domain of
generalizability, i.e., whether the obtained
information can be generalized to a larger
population or to different situations.
11/12/2024 146
 A research design should include
the following:
The preparation of research design, appropriate for a
particular research problem, involves the
consideration of the following:
 Objectives of the study

 Methods of data collection to be adopted

 Source of information- sampling design

 Tool for data collection

 The measurement procedures

 Data analysis

11/12/2024 147
 Categories of Research Design
 The way you formulate your research
question and objectives determine the
types of research design to use.
 This is about the purpose of your
research.
 The classification of research purpose
most often used in the research
methods’ literature is the threefold one
of exploratory, descriptive and
explanatory(causal).
11/12/2024 148
 THE RESEARCH
DESIGN

RESEARCH DESIGN

EXPLORATORY CONCLUSIVE
RESEARCH DESIGN RESEARCH DESIGN

DESCRIPTIVE CAUSAL
RESEARCH RESEARCH

CROSS-SECTIONAL LONGITUDINAL
DESIGN DESIGN
MULTIPLE
SINGLE CROSS-SECTIONAL
CROSS-SECTIONAL DESIGN
DESIGN
11/12/2024 149
 Categories of Research Design

Three traditional categories of research

design:

 Exploratory
 Descriptive
 Causal

11/12/2024 150
 Basic research objectives and
research design
 Exploratory study
 Used when the research objective is to gain background
information, to define terms, to clarify problems and
develop hypotheses, to establish research priorities, to
develop questions to be answered
 Descriptive study
 Used when the research objectives is to able to
describe the characteristics of the variables of interest
in a situation.
 To describe and measure phenomena at a point in time
 Case studies
 Used when the research objectives is to determine
causality, test hypotheses, to make “if- then”
Statements, to answer questions

11/12/2024 151
 Exploratory Research
 Exploratory research is most commonly
unstructured, “informal” research that is undertaken
to gain background information about the
general nature of the research problem.
 Exploratory research is usually conducted when
the researcher does not know much about the
problem and needs additional information or
desires new or more recent information.
 Exploratory research helps diagnose the dimensions
of the problem so that successive research will be
on target. It helps to set priorities for research.
11/12/2024 152
 Explanatory
 Exploratory research is used in a number of
situations:
 To gain background information
 To define terms
 To clarify problems and hypotheses
 To establish research priorities

11/12/2024 153
 It is appropriate when the research
objective is to provide insights into:
1. identifying the problems or opportunities
2. defining the problem more precisely,

3. gaining deeper insights into the variables operating in

a situation
4. identifying relevant courses of action

5. establishing priorities regarding the potential

significance of a problems or opportunities
6. gaining additional insights before an approach can be
developed and
7. gathering information on the problems associated
with doing conclusive research.
11/12/2024 154
 Cont…

A variety of methods are available to conduct

exploratory research:
 •Secondary Data Analysis

 •Experience Surveys

 •Case Analysis

 •Focus Groups

 •Projective Techniques

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 Descriptive Research
 It is simple to understand as the name itself suggests
that it involves describing something, for example:
 (a) market conditions;
 (b) characteristics or functions;
 (c) estimate the percentage of customers in a
particular group exhibiting the same purchase
behavior;
 (d) perceptions of product characteristics; and
 (e) to predict the pattern of behavior of characteristic
versus the other
11/12/2024 156
 Descriptive Research
 Descriptive research is undertaken to provide
answers to questions of who, what, where, when,
and how- but not why.
 Two basic classifications of descriptive research:

- Cross- sectional studies

- Longitudinal studies

11/12/2024 157
 Cont…
 Descriptive Research- Cross- sectional Studies

- Cross- sectional studies measure units from a

sample of the population at only one point in time.

- Sample surveys are cross- sectional studies whose

samples are drawn in such a way as to be
representative of a specific population.

11/12/2024 158
 Descriptive Research- Longitudinal
Studies
 Longitudinal studies repeatedly draw sample units of a population over time.

 One method is to draw different units from the same sampling frame.

 A second method is to use a “panel” where the same people are asked to

respond periodically.

 The panel members are those who have agreed to provide information at a specific

intervals over an extended period.

 For example, data obtained from panels formed to provide information on market

shares are based on an extended period of time, but also allow the researcher to examine

changes in market share over time. New members may be included in the panel as an

when there is a dropout of the existing members or to maintain representativeness.

11/12/2024 159
 Research Design: Causal Research

 It is used to obtain evidence of cause-and-effect

relationships which is otherwise known as the
independent-dependent relationship or the
predictive relationships.
 Causality may be thought of as understanding
a phenomenon in terms of conditional
statements of the form “If x, then y.”
11/12/2024 160
 Causal research is done in the following
situations:
 (a) To identify which variables are the cause and which are
the effect. In statistical terms, causal variables are called
independent variables and effectual variables are called
dependent variables.
 (b) To determine the nature of the relationship between the
causal variables and the effect to be predicted.
 Causal research requires a strong degree of planning on the
design as its success depends on the structure of the design.
11/12/2024 161
 5. Sampling Techniques
Sampling Terminologies:

In order to clearly understand and uses of sampling, it requires to be familiar with

the following concepts and terminology about sampling.

Population: Population, or universe, is any complete group , you wish to generalize

to. Example people, companies, hospitals, stores, college students, or the like that

share some set of characteristics.

Population Element: An individual member of a specific population.

Sampling Frame: Is the complete list of accessible population from which the

sample is drawn.
11/12/2024 162
 Cont….
Sampling theory is a study of relationships existing
between a population and samples drawn from
the population.
Sampling theory is applicable only to random
samples.
Randomness means given equal chance for
selection.
Sampling : The process of using a small number of
items or parts of a larger population to make
conclusions about the whole population.
11/12/2024 163
 Cont…
Sample: A subset or some parts of a
larger population who you select to be
in your study.
Sample design: Is a definite plan for
obtaining a sample frame
Census: A census is an investigation of
the individual elements that make up
the population: a total enumeration
rather than a sample.

11/12/2024 164
 Cont…
 Parameter
- Is a characteristic of a population or
- A specified value of the population, such as mean or
variance or
proportion is named as parameter.
 Statistic

- Is a characteristic of a sample or
- The corresponding value in the sample is termed a statistic.
 For example:

- when we work out certain measurement like, mean from a

sample they are called statistics.
- But when such measure describes the characteristic of the
population, they are called parameter(s)
 Population mean (μ) is a parameter

 Where as the sample mean (x) is a statistics

11/12/2024 165
Census vs. Sampling
 Whatever your research question(s) and objectives you will
need to consider whether you need to use sampling.
 Occasionally it may be possible to collect and analyze data
from every possible case or group member or census.
 However, for many research questions and objectives, it will
be impossible for researchers either to collect or to analyze
all the data available, owing to restrictions of the time, money,
facilities and often access.
 Sampling techniques provide a range of methods that enable
you to reduce the amount of data you need to collect by
considering only data from a subgroup rather than all possible
cases or elements.
11/12/2024 166
 Selecting a Sample

Sample: subset SAMPLE

of a larger population.

POPULATION

11/12/2024 167
 Characteristics of a good sample

 Whether the result obtained from a sample

survey would be accurate or not depends upon
the quality of the sample.
 Representativeness:
 A sample must be representative of the
population.
 Probability sampling techniques yield
representative sample.
 In measurement terms, the sample must be
valid.
 The validity of a sample depends upon its
accuracy and precision.
11/12/2024 168
 Accuracy:

 Accuracy is defined as the degree to

which bias is absent from the sample.
 An accurate (unbiased) sample is one
which exactly represents the
population.
 It is free from any influence that
causes any difference between sample
value and population value (say,
average).
11/12/2024 169
 Precision:

 The sample must yield precise

estimate.
 Precision is measured by the standard
error or standard deviation of the
sample estimate.
 The smaller the standard error or
estimate, the higher is the precision of
the sample.

11/12/2024 170
 Size:

 A good sample must be adequate in

size in order to be reliable.
 The sample should be of such size that
the inferences drawn from the sample
are accurate to a given level of
confidence.

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 Basis of sampling

 Sampling is based on two premises.

 There is a such similarity among the
elements in a population that a few of
these elements will adequately represent
the characteristics of the total population.
 For example, the attitudes of PG students
towards the examination system can be
gauged by studying the attitudes of a few
representative PG students in a university.

11/12/2024 172
 Cont…
 While the sample value (statistic) of some sample
units may be more than the population value
(parameter), the sample value of other sample
units may be less than the population value.
 When the sample is drawn properly, these difference
tend to counteract each other.
 With the result, a sample value is generally close to the
population value.
 Thanks to these tendencies, sampling yields
almost the same result as that of a census survey.

11/12/2024 173
 Advantages of sampling

 Sampling reduces the time and cost of research studies.

 Sampling saves labor. A smaller staff is required both for
field work and for processing and analyzing the data.
 The quality of a study is often better with sampling than
with a complete coverage.
 Sampling provides much quicker result than does a
census.
 Sampling is the only procedure possible, if the
population is infinite.

11/12/2024 174
 limitations of sampling
 Sampling demands a thorough knowledge of
sampling methods and procedures and an
exercise of great care; otherwise the results
obtained may be incorrect or misleading.
 When the characteristic to be measured occurs
only rarely in the population, a very large sample
is required to secure units that will give reliable
information about it. A large sample all the
drawbacks of census survey.

11/12/2024 175
 Cont…
 A complicated sampling plan may require more
labor than a complete coverage.
 It may not be possible to ensure the
representativeness of the sample, even by the
most perfect sampling procedures.
 Therefore sampling results in a certain degree of

sampling errors, i.e., there will be some

difference between the sample value and the
population value.

11/12/2024 176
 STAGES IN THE SELECTION OF SAMPLE

 Define the population or universe

 State the sampling frame
 Determine the sampling unit.

 State the sampling methods

 Determine the sample size
 Select the sample

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 Sampling Methods

 Sampling techniques may be classifies into two

generic types:
 Probability sampling methods
 Non-probability sampling methods.

11/12/2024 178
 SAMPLING METRHODS

NON - PROBABILITY PROBABILITY

SIMPLE RANDOM
SAMPLING

STRATIFIED
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
SAMPLING QUOTA
SAMPLING

JUDGMENTAL
SYSTEMATIC
SYSTEMATIC
SAMPLING
SNOWBALL SAMPLING
SAMPLING
SAMPLING
CLUSTER
SAMPLING

Multi-stage
11/12/2024 179
 Probability sampling methods

 Probability sampling or random sampling is based on the theory of

probability.
 It provides a known nonzero chance of selection for each population
element.
 In it every element in the population has a equal chance of being
selected.
 It yields a representative sample, and hence the findings of the sample
survey are generalizable to the population.
 The closeness of a sample to the population can be determined by
estimating sampling bias or error.
 Through randomization, the danger of unknown sampling bias can be
determined.
 Hence it is preferable than non-probability sampling.
11/12/2024 180
 cont,…
 It should be used when generalization is the
objective of the study, and a greater degree of
accuracy of estimation of population parameters
is required.
 Cost and time required for probability sampling
may be large.
 Hence the benefit derived from it should justify
the costs.

11/12/2024 181
 Probability sampling methods
The process of probability sampling can be divided
into four stages:
1. Identify a suitable sampling frame based on
your research question(s) or objectives.
2. Decide on a suitable sample size.

3. Select the most appropriate sampling

technique and select the sample.
4. Check that the sample is representative of the
population.

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 Probability sampling methods
Many statistical techniques assume that a sample was
selected on a random basis. There are four basic types
of random sampling techniques.
• Simple Random Sampling
• Stratified Random Sampling
• Systematic Random Sampling
• Cluster or Multi-Stage Sampling

11/12/2024 183
 Simple random sampling

 This sampling technique gives each element an equal and

independent chance of being selected.
 An equal chance means equal probability of selection.

For example, in a population of 300, each element

theoretically has 1/300th chance of being selected.
 An independent chance means that the draw of one

element will not affect the chances of other elements being

selected.
 Where some elements are purposely excluded from the

sample, the resulting sample is not a random one.

 Hence all elements should be included in the sample frame

to draw a random sample.

11/12/2024 184
 Procedure:

 The procedure of drawing a simple random sample

consists of
 list of all elements in the population,
 preparation of a list of all elements, giving
them numbers in a serial order 1,2,3….. and so
on,
 drawings sample numbers by using
 Lottery method

 A table of random numbers or

 A computer
11/12/2024 185
 Suitability

 The simple random sampling is suitable and

may yield a representative sample under the
following conditions:
 Where the population is a homogenous group
with reference to the specified characteristics,
 Where the population is relatively small,

 Where a complete list of all elements is

available or can be prepared.

11/12/2024 186
 Stratified sampling

 When the population is heterogeneous with respect to

the variables or characteristics under study then the
technique of stratified sampling is used to obtain more
efficient and accurate results.
 In this method, the population is sub-divided into
homogeneous groups or strata, and from each stratum,
random sample is drawn.
 For example, the employees of a business undertaking
may be divided into managers and non-managers and
each of those two groups may sub-divided into salary-
grade-wise strata.
11/12/2024 187
 Need for stratification

 It ensures representation to all relevant sub-

groups of the population. It is thus more efficient
statistically than simple random sampling.
 It is essential when the researcher wants to study
the characteristics of population subgroups, e.g.,
male and female employees of an organization.
 It is also useful when different methods of data
collection, etc. are used for different parts of the
population, e.g., interviewing for workers and
self-administered questionnaire for executives.
11/12/2024 188
 Suitability

 This sampling method is appropriate for a

large heterogeneous population.

11/12/2024 189
 Stratification process

This involves three major decisions:

1. The stratification base or bases to be used should be decided.
 The ideal base would be the principle variable under study.
 For example, if the size of the firms is a primary variable, the firms
may be stratifies on the basis of the block capital employed.
2. The number of strata: what would be the number of strata?
 There is no precise answer to this question.

 Larger the number of strata, greater may be the degree of

representatives of the sample.

 The decision may be based on the number of sub-population

groups to be studies and the cost of stratification.

11/12/2024 190
 3, Strata sample sizes:

 There are two alternatives.

 First, the strata sample sizes may be
proportionate to strata’s shares in the total
population.
 Second, they may be disproportionate to strata’s
shares.
 Accordingly, stratified random sampling may be
classified into
 Proportionate stratified sampling
 Disproportionate stratified sampling
11/12/2024 191
 Proportionate stratified sampling
This sampling involves drawing a sample from each stratum in
proportion to the latter’s share in the total population.

For example, if the final year MBA students of the management

department of a school consist of the following the specialization
groups:
Specialization No. of students Proportion of each
stream stream

Finance 40 0.4
Marketing 20 0.2
HRM 30 0.3
Accounting 10 0.1
100 1.0
11/12/2024 192
 The researcher wants to draw an overall sample of 30.
 Then the strata sample size would be:

Strata Sample size

Finance 30 × 0.4 = 12
Marketing 30 ×0.2 = 6
HRM 30 × 0.3 = 9
Accountin 30 × 0.1 = 3
g
30

11/12/2024 193
 Cont…
 Thus, proportionate sampling gives proper
representation to each stratum and its statistical
efficiency is generally higher.
 This method is, therefore, very popular.

11/12/2024 194
 Disproportionate stratified sampling

 This method does not give proportionate

representation to strata.
 It necessarily involves giving over representation to
some strata and underrepresentation to others.
 There may be several disproportionate schemes.
 All strata may be given equal weight, even though
their shares in the total population vary.
 Alternatively some substrata may be given greater
weight and other lesser weight.

11/12/2024 195
 Usage

 This method of disproportionate sampling is not widely

used.
 However, it is appropriate to use it under the following
circumstances:
 When the population contains some small but important
subgroups.
 When certain subgroups quite heterogeneous, while others
are homogeneous,
 When it is expected that there will be appreciable
differences in the response rates of he subgroups in the
population.

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 Systematic sampling

 Under this method a sample is taken from a list

prepared on a systematic arrangement either on
the basis of alphabetic order or on house number
or any other method.
 In this method only the first sample unit is
selected at random and the remaining units are
automatically selected in a definite sequence at
equal spacing from one another.

11/12/2024 197
 Steps involved in Systematic Sampling

 First of all the population is arranged in serial numbers from 1

to N, and the size of sample (n) is determined.
 The sample interval is determined by dividing the population
by the size of the sample,
i.e. N/ n = K
Where K = sample interval
n = sample size
N = size of population
 Any number is selected at random from the first sampling
interval.
 The subsequent samples are selected at equal or regular
intervals.
11/12/2024 198
 Cont…
 For example, suppose it is desired to select a
sample of 20 students, from a list of 300
students, divide the population total of 300 by 20.
 The quotient is 15.
 Select a number at random between 1 and 15, using
lottery method or a table of random numbers.
 Suppose the selected number is 9.
 Then the students numbered 9, 24 (9+15), 39
(24+15) 54 (39+15)………. are selected as the
sample.
11/12/2024 199
 Applications of systematic sampling
 Systematic selection can be applied to various
populations such as
 Students in a class,
 Houses in a street,
 Telephone directory,
 Customers of a bank,
 Assembly line output in a factory,
 Members of an association and so on.

11/12/2024 200
 Cluster sampling

 Where the population elements are scattered over a wider

area and a list of population elements is not readily available,
 the use of simple or stratified random sampling methods would be
too expensive and time consuming.
 In such cases cluster sampling is usually adopted.
 Cluster sampling means random selection of sampling units
consisting of population elements.
 Each such sampling unit is a cluster of population elements.
 Then from each selected sampling unit, a sample of population
elements is drawn by either simple random selection or
stratified random selection.

11/12/2024 201
 Cont…
 Suppose a researcher wants to select a random sample of 1,000
households out of 40,000 estimated households in a city for a
survey.
 A direct sample of individual households would be difficult
to select, because a list of households does not exist and
would be too costly to prepare.
 Instead, he can select a random sample of a few blocks.
 The number of blacks to be selected depends up on the average
number of estimated households per black.
 Suppose the average number of households is 200, then 5 blocks
comprise the sample.
 Since the number of households per block varies, the actual
sample size depends on the block which happen to be selected.
11/12/2024 202
 Cont…
 Alternatively, he can draw a sample of more blocks
and from each sample blacks a certain number of
households may be selected by systematic
sampling.
 Applications:
 It can be apply particularly in farm management
surveys, socio-economic surveys, rural credit
surveys, demographic studies, ecological studies,
public opinion polls, large scale surveys of political
and social behavior, attitude surveys and so on.

11/12/2024 203
 Multi-stage sampling
 The method is generally used in selecting a sample from a very
large area.
 As the name suggested multi-stage sampling refers to a sampling
technique, which is carried out in various stages.
 Here the population is regarded as made of a number of primary
units, each of which is further composed of a number of secondary
stage units which is further composed of third stage units and so on
till we ultimately reach the desired sampling unit in which we are
interested.
 At each stage there is a random selection and the size of sample
may be proportional or disproportional depending on the size
and characters of variations are event to the purpose of inquiry.
 Thus the area of investigation is scientifically restricted to a small
number of ultimate units which are representative of the whole.
11/12/2024 204
 Non-probability sampling methods
 These are not based on the theory of probability.
 This sampling does not provide a chance of selection

to each population element.

 The only merits of this type of sampling are simplicity,

convenience and low cost.

Its demerits are:
 It does not ensure a selection chance to each population

unit,
 The selection probability is unknown.

 Non-probability sampling plan does not perform inferential

function, i.e., the population parameters cannot be

estimated from the sample values.
 It suffers from sampling bias which will distort results.

 Therefore, non-probability sampling is not a desirable

method.
11/12/2024 205
 Yet there are some practical reasons
for using it.
 When there is no other feasible alternative due to non-
availability of a list of population, non-availability of some
population elements for collection of data,
 When the study does not aim at generalizing the findings to
the population, but simply at feeling the range of
conditions, or nature of the phenomenon,
 When the, and the be costs required for probability
sampling may be too large benefit expected from it is not
commensurate with such costs,
 When probability sampling required more time, but the
time constraints and the time limit for completing the study
do not permit it.
11/12/2024 206
 Non-probability Sampling
Types of non probability sampling
• Accidental, Haphazard or Convenience
Sampling
• Purposive Sampling

 Modal Instance Sampling

 Expert Sampling
• Quota Sampling
 Heterogeneity Sampling
 Snowball Sampling
11/12/2024 207
 Convenience sampling
 It is known as unsystematic, careless, accidental or
opportunistic sampling.
 It means selecting sample units in a just ‘hit and miss’
fashion.
 Under this method a sample is selected according to
the convenience of the investigator.
 This convenience may be in respect of availability of
data, accessibility of the units etc.
 This method may be used in the following cases:
 When the universe is not clearly defined.
 When sampling units is not clear.
11/12/2024 208
 Judgment sampling
 This method means deliberate selection of sample
units that conform to some pre-determined criteria.
 Judgment sampling is also “purposive sampling” or
“deliberate sampling”.
 This involves selection of cases which we judge as
the most appropriate ones for the given study.
 It is based on the judgment of the researcher or some
expert.
 The chance that a particular case be selected for the
sample depends on the subjective judgment of the
researcher.
11/12/2024 209
 Quota sampling
 Quota sampling is a special type of stratified sampling.
 First of all in this method, the population is stratified on the
basis, preferably on the basis of the characteristics of the
population under study.
 After this, the number of sample units to be selected from each
stratum is decided by the researcher in advance.
 This number is know as quota, which may be fixed according
to some specific characteristics such as income groups, sex,
occupation, political or religious affiliations etc.
 The choice of the particular units for investigation is left to the
investigators themselves.
 The investigators try to complete the quota assigned to them
from each stratum.
11/12/2024 210
 Application:

 Quota sampling is used in studies like marketing

surveys, opinion polls which do not aim at
precision, but to get quickly some basic result.

11/12/2024 211
 Snowball sampling

 This is the colorful name for a technique of building

up a list or a sample of a special population by using
an initial set of its members as informants.
 For example: if a researcher wants to study the
problems faced by Ethiopians in another country, say,
he may identify an initial group of Ethiopians through
some source like Ethiopian Embassy.
 Then he can ask each one of them to supply names of
other Ethiopians known to them, continue this
procedure until he gets an exhaustive list from which
he can draw a sample or make a census survey.
11/12/2024 212
 Criteria Used For Selecting
Sampling Techniques
 The purpose of the survey.
 Measurability.
 Degree of precision.
 Information about population.
 The nature of the population.
 The geographical area covered by the survey.
 Fund availability.
 Time
 Economy
11/12/2024 213
 Sample size
 Sample size is the number of items to be
selected from the universe. It should be
optimum.
 Formulas, tables, and power function charts are
well known approaches to determine sample
size.

11/12/2024 214
 Sample size determination (only if you select probability
sampling methods in your study)
 There are some misconceptions about the required size of a
sample.
 One is that sample should not be less than 10% of the
population.
 This rule, commonly know as the 1/10 th rule is not relevant to
large populations.
 Another misconception is: larger the sample size, greater may
be the accuracy of the sample results.
 Although an increase in sample size will increase precision of
the sample results, a large sample size does not guarantee the
accuracy of the results.
 The sample size can be statistically estimated by deciding the
required level of accuracy.
11/12/2024 215
 Sample value and population parameter
 Suppose there are four students in a specialization stream,
and they have secured 4,9,5 and 6 marks respectively in a
test.
 The mean mark of the population (µ) is 6.
 A sample of 2 is to be drawn for estimating µ.
 Suppose the random draw gives a sample of 4 and 6.
 The sample mean (denoted by × ) is 10 ÷ 2 = 5.
 This is taken as an estimate of the population mean, µ.
 Since in this example, we know that µ is 6, it is possible for
us to say that estimate is inaccurate.
 This is, the sample mean is not an accurate estimation of the
population mean.
11/12/2024 216
 Cont…
 Had the draw given a sample of 5 and 6, the estimate
would have been 5.5, which is very close.
 Therefore, the accuracy of a sample estimate refers to its
closeness to the correct population value.
 In actual situations, the population value is not known, the
actual accuracy of the sample estimate cannot be assessed.
 However, its probable accuracy can be estimated.
 In practice, a researcher does not draw several samples
from a population.
 He estimates the population parameter (µ) on the basis of
only one sample.
11/12/2024 217
 Cont…
 A researcher is worried about sample size because of the
fact that sample size (number of elements in sample) and
precision of the study are directly related.
 The sample size determination is purely statistical activity,
which needs statistical knowledge.
 There are a number of sample size determination methods.
 Among them:
 Personal judgments:
 The personal judgment and subjective decision of the
researcher in some cases can be used as a base to determine
the size of the sample.

11/12/2024 218
 Budgetary approach:
 Under this approach the sample size is determined
by the available fund for the proposed study.
 Suppose, if cost of surveying of one individual or
unit is $25 and if the total available fund for
survey is say $2000, the sample size then will be
determined as,
 Sample size (n) = total budget of survey /Cost of
unit survey,
 Accordingly, the sample size will be 80 units
(2000 / 25 = 80 units)
11/12/2024 219
 Cont…
 Traditional inferences:
 This is based on precision rate and confidence level.
 To estimate sample size using this approach we need to have
information about the estimated variance of the population,
the magnitude of acceptable error and the confidence
interval.
 Variance of the population:
 It refers to the standard deviation of the population parameter.
 The sample size depends up on the variance of the population.
 If the population is similar (homogenous) small sample size can
be enough.

11/12/2024 220
 Cont…
 If information about variance is not available a researcher is
expected to estimate it.
 Estimation of the variance or standard deviation is not an easy
undertaking.
 The researcher can carry out either pilot study for the purpose
of estimating the population standard deviation or he can use
the rule of the thumb.
 According to the rule of the thumb standard deviation is one-
sixth of the range.
 Suppose, If the households yearly average income is expected
to range between $3,000 and $21,000, using the rule of the
thumb the standard deviation will be 1/6(18,000) = 3,000
hence range equal 18,000 (21,000-3,000).
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 Magnitude of acceptable error:
 The magnitude of error (range of possible error)
indicates how precise the study must be.
 It is acceptable error for that study.
 The researcher makes subjective judgment about
the desired magnitude of error.
 For example, to estimate the average income of
household one may allow an error says ± 30

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 Confidence interval:

 In most case (research) 95% confidence level is

used.
 That is, it is assumed that 95 times out of 100 the
estimate from sample will include the population
parameter.

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 Cont…
 Once the above concepts are understood and the size of
sample is quite simple to determine.
 It is determined based on the following relationship.
 For mean n = (ZS/E)2
 Where Z represents standardization value indicating a
confidence level.
 For example: Based on confidence level: 1.96 for 95%
confidence, 1.6449 for 90% and 2.5758 for 99%.
 E represents acceptable magnitude of error ± an error
factor.
 S represents sample SD or an estimate of the population
SD
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 Cont…
 For example, the household yearly income expected to range from
1000 – 25000. The SD based on rule of thumb, range = 24000
*1/6 = 4000
 Suppose we want to study the household monthly expenditure on
food.
 We wish to have a 95% confidence level
 Acceptable range of error of not less than 20 birr.
 And the estimated value of the SD is 200
I.e. Z = 1.96
E = 20
S = 200
n = (ZS/E)2 = (1.96 *200/20)2 = 384.16 or 385
 If the range of error (E) is reduced to 10-sample size will increase.

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 The Factors Considering While
Deciding The Size Of The Sample
a)Nature of the population.

b) Complexity of tabulation.

c) Problem relate with collection of data.

d) Type of sampling.

e) Basic information.

f) Degree of accuracy required for the study.

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 Errors in Sample surveys
 Survey results are typically subject to some error.
Total errors can be classified into sampling errors
and non-sampling errors. The term "error" here
includes systematic biases as well as random
errors.
 Any time we are comparing data we have
collected to an exact value or to another set of
data we have collected, there is only a very small
chance they would be exactly the same.

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 Sampling and non-sampling errors
 A survey aims at estimating or inferring selected population
characteristics or parameters by studying either the entire
population or a sample of the population.
 The research results may differ from the true values of the
parameters under study.
 Such differences are known as errors and biases.
 The errors of a survey may be classified into:
 Sampling errors
 Sampling biases
 Non-sampling errors
 Non-sampling biases
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 Sampling errors

 The errors which arise because of the use of

sampling survey are called sampling errors.
 This are random variation in the sample

estimate around the true population

parameters.
 These may arise due to non-
representativeness of the samples and the
inadequacy of sample size.

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 Types of sampling errors
 Biased errors: These errors are occurring due to
the faulty selection of sampling method due to the
prejudice of the researchers.
 Unbiased errors: This type of bias is
occurring due to chance difference between the
items included in the sample.
 Causes of bias- Bias may arise due to,
 1.Faulty process selection.
 2.Faulty work during the collection of information.
 3.Faulty method of analysis
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 Sampling biases

 The average of the estimates of a

population parameter derived from an
infinite number of sample is called the
expected value of the estimator.
 The difference between this value and

true value of the parameter is the

sampling bias.

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 Non-sampling errors

 These are errors which arises from sources other than

sampling.
 They include errors of observation, errors of measurement
and errors of responses.
 Data are collected through the methods of observation or
interviewing.
 The physical procedures of observation or interviewing are
subject to imperfection which cause errors.
 Measurement errors consist of error in processing and
analysis.
 Errors of response include incorrect responses of the
respondents, mistakes in noting their responses.
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 Non-sampling biases

 These biases pose problems for scientific measurement.

 They affect both the population sample values and account for the
difference between the population value and the true value.
 They consist of biases of observation and no-observation, response
biases and process biases.
 Biases of observation are caused by obtaining and recording
observations incorrectly.
 Non-observation biases arise from failure to obtain observations on
some segments of the population due to either not-coverage or non-
response.
 Response biases consist of biases arising from imperfections in field
observations or interviewing.
 Processing biases are produced during coding, tabulating and
computing.
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 Data collection tools

 The search for answers to research

questions calls of collection of data.
 Data are facts, figures and other relevant
materials, past and present, serving as
bases for study and analysis.

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 Classification of Secondary data

 Internal Data:
 Ready to Use
 Requires further processing
 External Data:
 Published Materials
 Computerized Database
 Syndicated Services

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 ADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY
DATA

 Easily Accessible
 Relatively Inexpensive
 Quickly Obtained
 Better define the problem
 Formulate an appropriate
research design

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 DISADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA

 Usefulness to the current problem

may be limited
 Irrelevant
 Inaccurate

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 Primary Data

 Primary data are original observations collected by

the researcher or his agents for the first time for any
investigation and used by them in the statistical
analysis.
 Primary data are those data which are collected
afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be
original in character.
 Primary data are first-hand information collected
through various methods such as observation, surveys,
interviewing, experimentation, focus group discussion,
etc. (later we will discuss each of them in detail)

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 Methods of Primary data collection

 Observation method
 Interview method
 Through questionnaires
 Through schedules
 Experimentation
 Simulation
 Use of telephone
 Panel methods
 Mail survey
 Projective techniques
 sociometry
 Focused group discussion
 Content analysis

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 Survey Research

 It is a method of research involving collection of data directly from

a population or a sample thereof at particular time.
 It must not be confused with the mere clerical routine of gathering
and tabulating figures.
 It requires expert and imaginative planning, careful analysis and
rational interpretation of the findings.
 A Survey is “the action of ascertaining facts regarding conditions
or the condition of something to provide exact information
especially to persons responsible or interested” and as “a
systematic collection and analysis of data on some aspect of an
area or group.”

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 Types of Survey

 There are four different types of surveys that

are:
1. Observations,
2. Questionnaires,
3. Interviews, and
4. projective techniques.
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 Interview and the questionnaire are the most
 The Questionnaire

A questionnaire is defined as a formalized instrument for collecting data from

respondents
Advantage
 lower costs

 better samples

 standardization

 respondent privacy (anonymity)

 It is free from the bias of the interviewers, answers are in respondents own

words
 Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.

 Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.

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 The Questionnaire

Disadvantage
 Non-returns,

 Misinterpretation, and

 Validity problems.

 It can be used only when respondents are educated and

cooperating.
 The control over the questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.

 There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending

the approach once questionnaires have been dispatched.

 This method is the slowest of all.

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 The Contents of Questionnaires

 The key to minimizing the disadvantages of the survey

questionnaire lies in the construction of the questionnaire itself.
 A poorly developed questionnaire contains the seeds of its own
destruction.
 Each of the three portions of the questionnaire - the cover letter,
the instructions, and the questions - must work together to have
a positive impact on the success of the survey.

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 QUESTION STARTERS

OPEN-ENDED

Why? What? How?

CLOSED-ENDED

When? Where? Who?

Is? Do?
 CLOSED- AND OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

A close-ended question is a question that

can be answered with either YES or
NO.
It can include presuming, probing, restrictive
or leading questions.
Example:
Is this going to be on the test?
 CLOSED- AND OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS

An open-ended question is a question

that cannot be answered by either
a yes or no.

Requires more explanation.

Example: What will be on the test?

 TYPES OF QUESTIONS

1. Based on the situation of survey

2. Based on Level of Measurement
3. Variable of structure or response format

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 . How to construct questionnaires?
 Keep the vocabulary simple
 –Keep the question short
 –Avoid double-barreled questions-These are single
questions that ask for two things and therefore require two
answers.
 –Avoid hypothetical questions
 –Avoid double negatives -Double negatives, either in the
question or an answer category (or both), create difficulties for
the respondent.
 –Avoid overlapping response categories-Answer
categories should be mutually exclusive.
 –Beware of ‘leading’ questions
 –Develop in an interactive way

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 Questionnaire Construction/ Wording Decision

 Keep the language simple

 Keep the questions short
 Keep the number of questions to a minimum
 Limit each question to one idea or concept.
 Do not ask leading questions
 Use subjective terms such as good, fair, and bad
sparingly/economically, if at all.
 Allow for all possible answers
 Avoid emotional or morally charged questions and too direct
questions

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 Questionnaire Construction/
Wording Decision

 Understand the “should-would” question.

 Formulate your questions and answers to obtain exact
information and to minimize confusion.
 Include a few questions that can serve as checks on the
accuracy and consistency of the answers as a whole.
 Organize the pattern of the questions appropriately
 Pretest (pilot test) the questionnaire.
 Have your questionnaire neatly produced on quality
paper.
 Be realistic in assuming about the respondents
 Finally, make your survey interesting!

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 The process of conducting the interview

1. Knowing the Role of the

Interviewer and Preparing on it
- Training the Interviewers
- Make ready The Interviewer's Kit

2. Conducting the Interview

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 Observation Methods

 Observation means viewing or seeing.

 We go on observing some thing or other while we are
awake.
 Most of such observations are just casual and have no
specific purpose.
 But observation as a method of data collection is different
from such casual viewing.
 Observation may define as a systematic viewing of a
specific phenomenon in its proper setting for the specific
purpose of gathering data for a particular study.
 Observation as method includes both “seeing” and
‘hearing”.

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 Cont…

 Observation becomes scientific,

when it
 serves a formulated research purpose,
 is planned deliberately,
 is recoded systematically,
 is subjected to checks and controls on
validity and reliability.

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 Measurement and Scaling

 Measurement
 Measurement is a systematic way of assigning numbers
or names to objects and their attributes according to the
rules. It is easy to assign numbers in respect of properties
of some objects, properties like weight, height.
 The definition of measurement clearly states that the
researcher should know that the measurement scale
measures the characteristics of the objects or event and
not the objects or events.

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 SCALING

 Scaling is the branch of measurement that involves

the construction of an instrument that associates
qualitative constructs with quantitative metric units.
 Scaling describes the procedure of assigning numbers
to various degree of opinion, attitudes and other
categories.

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 .

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 Example of Likert scale

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 .

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 Data Analysis and
interpretation

 The term ‘analysis’ basically means

the ‘resolution of a complex whole
into its parts'. In this sense, it is usually
contrasted with the term ‘synthesis’,
which means ‘the construction of a
whole out of parts’.
 “There’s a world of difference between
truth and facts. Facts can obscure the
truth. "Maya Angelou
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 Processing Data

 Enter your data

 By hand
 By computer
 Excel (spreadsheet)
 Microsoft Access (database mangt)
 Quantitative analysis: SPSS (statistical
software)

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 Analysis and Processing of Data
 The data, after collection, has to be processed and analyzed in accordance with
the outline laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research
plan.
 Technically speaking, processing implies

editing,

coding,

classification and

tabulation of collected data

 so that they are amenable to analysis.
 However, analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with
searching for patterns of relationship that exist among data-groups.

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 PROCESSING OPERATIONS
1. Editing:

 Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (especially

in surveys) to detect errors and omissions and to correct these when
possible.
 editing involves a careful scrutiny of the completed
questionnaires and/or schedules.
 Editing is done to assure that the data are accurate,
consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly
entered, as completed as possible and have been well
arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.

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 2. Coding(re-coding):

 Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or

other symbols to answers so that responses can be
put into a limited number of categories or classes.
 Coding decisions should usually be taken at the designing
stage of the questionnaire.
 This makes it possible to pre-code the questionnaire choices
and which in turn is helpful for computer tabulation as one
can straight forward key punch from the original
questionnaires.

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 3. Classification:

 Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data

which must be reduced into homogeneous groups if we are
to get meaningful relationships.
 This fact necessitates classification of data which happens to
be the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the
basis of common characteristics.

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 4. Tabulation:

 When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes

necessary for the researcher to arrange the same in
some kind of concise and logical order.
 This procedure is referred to as tabulation.
 Thus, tabulation is the process of summarizing raw data
and displaying the same in compact form
 (i.e., in the form of statistical tables) for further
analysis.

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 Data Analysis

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 Cont…..

 Analysis, particularly in case of survey or

experimental data, involves estimating the
values of unknown parameters of the
population and testing of hypotheses for
drawing inferences.
 Analysis may, therefore, be categorized as
descriptive analysis and inferential
analysis (Inferential analysis is often
known as statistical analysis).

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 Cont…

 “Descriptive analysis is largely the

study of distributions of one
variable.
 This study provides us with profiles
of companies, work groups, persons
and other subjects on any of a
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multiple of characteristics such as 295
 Cont..

 Correlation analysis studies the joint variation of two or

more variables for determining the amount of correlation
between two or more variables.
 Causal analysis is concerned with the study of how one or
more variables affect changes in another variable. It is
thus a study of functional relationships existing between two
or more variables.

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 Cont…

 This analysis can be termed as regression analysis.

 Causal analysis is considered relatively more important in
experimental researches,
 whereas in most social and business researches our interest
lies in understanding and controlling relationships between
variables then with determining causes per se and as such we
consider correlation analysis as relatively more important.

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 Inferential analysis

 is concerned with the various tests of significance for testing

hypotheses in order to determine with what validity data can
be said to indicate some conclusion or conclusions.
 It is also concerned with the estimation of population values.
 It is mainly on the basis of inferential analysis that the task
of interpretation (i.e., the task of drawing inferences and
conclusions) is performed.

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 Methods of analysis:

One or more methods could be used in the data analysis.

 Quantitative data (association/ correlation, ANOVA, regression)

 Correlation analysis -the joint variation of two or more variables for

determining the amount of correlation between two or more variables,

 Causal analysis:-concerned with the study of how one or more

variables affect changes in another variable

 Multivariate analysis -methods which simultaneously analyze more

than two variables on a sample of observations (e.g. multiple regression)

 Time series analysis -series of successive observations of the given

phenomenon over a period of time

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 .
Qualitative data (narrative, in-depth case analysis):
 it is very difficult but thinking through the fieldwork could help.
 Researcher participation in data collection makes analysis easier.
 Taking orderly field notes, separating types of data and putting
the search for analytic categories.
 Returning to early analytical concepts and ‘caring’ for crucial
events recorded during data collection.
 Linking qualitative and quantitative data,

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 Interpretation and Report Writing
 After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to
accomplish the task of drawing inferences followed by report writing.
 This has to be done very carefully, otherwise misleading conclusions
maybe drawn and the whole purpose of doing research may get
vitiated.
 It is only through interpretation that the researcher can expose
relations and processes that underlie his findings.
 In case of hypotheses testing studies, if hypotheses are tested and
upheld several times, the researcher may arrive at generalizations.

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 MEANING OF INTERPRETATION

 Interpretation refers to the task of drawing

inferences from the collected facts after
an analytical and/or experimental study.
 Interpretation also extends beyond the
data of the study to include the results of
other research, theory and hypotheses.”

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