CELL

STRUCTURE
AND
FUNCTIONS.
 What are the function performed in Humans to be alive?
1) Respiration
2) Growth
3) Movement
4) Digestion
5) Differentiation
6) Excretion
7) Development
8) Reproduction
9) Ingestion
INTRODUCTION
10) Defence
Introduction to the cell – 11) Transport
https://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=8IlzKri08kk&t 12) Response
13) Structure making, repair

Now, Can we define cell?

What is the difference between unicellular organism’s Cell and multicellular
organism’s cell – Specialization?
 TYPICAL CELL

1) Cell is discrete and

recognisable cause it has a
outer membrane/clear
boundary between inside and
outside.
2) Cell Interior is Water Based.
(Cytoplasm) Which has
cellular machinery (organs)
and structural elements
(Proteins) with chemicals.
( Enzymes)
3) In Cytoplasm – Organelles,
Proteins, nucleic acids, Carbs,
Types of organelles –
Lipids
4) Genetic material having
information of structure, Protective organelles – Plasma membrane, Cytoplasm, Cell Wall,
function etc. lysosomes
5) Site of energy production – Process oriented – Chloroplast, Mitochondria
Mitochondria. Synthesizing – Ribosomes, Golgi, Endoplasmic reticulum
Information and information processing – Nucleus.
COMPOSITION AND TYPES OF
CELLS.

Specialized cells
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w
Ne6RuK0FfA&t
How They become specialized
https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=t3g26p9Mh_k
STRUCTURE
OF PLASMA
MEMBRANE
Introduction
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nsklF1w4eok
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qBCVVszQQNs
&list=WL&index=2&t

Cholesterol functions -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BrUzYD1BATA
Protein –
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m_tzkwVJggs&list=PLb1wF0xa6WI-NHL2aVgqXxBgwEqiWo8m8&in
dex=21
INDIVIDUAL
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
WAT E R LOV I N G PA RT S A N D
WAT E R H AT I N G PA RT S

• The lipid bilayer acts as a

barrier to the passage of
molecules and ions into and
out of the cell.
• Provide the supporting matrix
and surface for many catalytic
processes
CHOLESTEROL
• 3 parts in a cholesterol molecule – Hydroxyl and steroid
portion Hydrophilic, Hydrocarbon chain hydrophobic.

• Cholesterol maintains fluidity, similar function as buffer.

• Rise in temperature – increase in membrane fluidity –

phospholipids tend to separate – cholesterol hold them
together

• Fall in temperature – decrease in membrane fluidity –

phospholipids tend to stick together – cholesterol stops
them from being too tight.
PROTEINS

• Types of Protein –

1) Integral proteins - Can span across the membrane at least once, Transport of
substances, single pass and multi pass in nature.
2) Peripheral Protein – present on one end ( Internal or External), loosely attached
enzymatic in action, cytoskeleton may be attached to them
3) Glycoprotein – Carbs when attached to protein is Glycoprotein, Used in cell signaling
and cell recognition.
PLASMA MEMBRANE
1) Acts as Physical Barrier
2) Provides structural support to organelles (Cytoskeleton –
Protein Filaments)
Cytoskeleton -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ikZ5Wvuu4c
3) Transport (Selectively Permeable and semi permeable) –
a) Smaller Molecules Entry (Oxygen etc.)
b) Generally, ions (e.g., Na, K) and polar molecules cannot
pass through the membrane, Must pass through
channels. C)
c) Membrane can control the rate at which certain
molecules can enter and exit the cell.
Diffusion, Active transport, passive transport, facilitated
diffusion
Cell transport -
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ptmlvtei8hw&t
4) Reception of signals - Receptor proteins act both as
receivers of extracellular inputs and as activators of
intracellular processes. (Example of hormones)
Cell signalling - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-dbRterutHY
5) Helps cells to attach to other cells
CELL TRANSPORT
• Simple Diffusion through Plasma membrane – No energy required so passive in nature, diffusion High to low
concentration, small and nonpolar substance can enter, O2 and co2
• Facilitated diffusion - No energy required so passive in nature, diffusion High to low concentration, requires
membrane protein to transport, Glucose, Water, ions such as Na+, K+
• Active transport – Energy required to move substance from its lower concentration and higher concentration. It
requires membrane protein.
1. Endocytosis - The taking in of matter by a living cell by invagination of its membrane to form a vacuole. Phagocytosis,
pinocytosis, receptor mediated endocytosis
CYTOSKELETON
• Structural proteins synthesized by ribosomes.
• Cytoplasm is mainly water, so to keep the
structural organization cytoskeleton is required.
• Determine cell shape
• Cytoskeleton made up of – Microtubules,
Microfilament, intermediated filament.
• Microtubules – Hollow, compressive strength,
Largest, made up of tubulin, Help in transport of
protein inside cytoplasm, flagella is made up of
tubulin, cilia too which are present in lungs,
trachea.
• Microfilament – Made up of actin myosin, contracts
and relax storing potential energy so useful in cell
movement, present in muscle cells, cytoplasmic
streaming – Organelles can move inside such as
chloroplast, cytoplasm, Golgi bodies.
• Intermediate filament – in between microtubules
and microfilaments further providing structural
support.
D I S T R I B U T I O N O F C Y T O S K E L E TA L E L E M E N T S
• Epithelial Cells will have more intermediate filaments
• Blood cell with Microtubule
• WBC with microtubules and actin
CELL
SIGNALLING
• Signal Molecules attach to receptor.

• When signal molecules attach receptors - 1)

Receptor structure may change 2) Activate
some other Pathways or processes 3) May
activate transcription 4)May open membrane
protein to let substances enter

• Cell – cell Signalling – 1) adjacent cells have

gap junctions for communication 2) cells far
apart from each other may contact each
other with secretion transported through
blood in the form of hormones.
 CYTOPLASM
• The cytoplasm is a highly viscous (gel-like) substance enclosed within
the cell membrane.
• It is composed of water (about 85 percent), proteins (10 to 15 percent),
lipids (2 to 4 percent), nucleic acids, inorganic salts and
polysaccharides in smaller amounts.
• Organelles are also part of the cytoplasm.
• Function
a) Protection - cytoplasm protects various components of the cell by
acting as a cushion that absorbs some shock.
b) Transportation – Golgi and endoplasmic reticulum (Membrane
Vesicles), removal of waste products from the cells through
structures known as vesicles.
c) Storage – Example of Lipocytes.
d) Cyclosis – A) To shuttle chloroplasts to areas receiving the most
available sunlight. B) cytoplasmic streaming is used for locomotion.
C) Cytoplasmic streaming is also required for cell division as the
cytoplasm must be distributed among daughter cells.
• Cytoplasm - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TptsLsxc2lQ
• Function - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MdGWGBBRyEw
 CELL WALL
• Rigid, semi-permeable protective layer.
• Composed mainly of strong fibers of the carbohydrate polymer cellulose,
Hemicellulose and Pectin.
• cell wall modification are often complex and dynamic to respond to a given stimulus
• Support: The cell wall provides mechanical strength and support. It also controls the
direction of cell growth.​
• Withstand turgor pressure: Turgor pressure is the force exerted against the cell
wall as the contents of the cell push the plasma membrane against the cell wall. This
pressure helps a plant to remain rigid and erect but can also cause a cell to rupture.​
• Regulate growth: The cell wall sends signals for the cell to enter the cell cycle in
order to divide and grow.
• Regulate diffusion: The cell wall is porous allowing some substances, including
proteins, to pass into the cell while keeping other substances out.​
• Communication: Plant cell walls also contain many proteins and glycoproteins,
including various enzymes and structural proteins. Cells communicate with one
another via plasmodesmata (pores or channels between plant cell walls that allow
molecules and communication signals to pass between individual plant cells).​
• Protection: The cell wall provides a barrier to protect against plant viruses and other
pathogens. It also helps to prevent water loss.​
• Storage: The cell wall stores carbohydrates for use in plant growth, especially in
seeds.
• primary walls that surround growing cells or cells capable of growth and secondary
walls that are thickened structures containing lignin.
LY S O S O M E S
• Lysosomes are specialized vesicles within cells that digest large molecules using hydrolytic
enzymes. (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids)
• Lysosomes are only found in animal cells.
• A human cell contains around 300 of them.
• Vesicles are small spheres of fluid surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane, and they have roles
in transporting molecules within the cell.
• They are also responsible for breaking down and getting rid of waste products of the cell.
• Lysosomes contain over 60 different enzymes that allow them to carry out these processes.
• Different types of enzymes in lysosomes including proteases, amylases, nucleases, lipases, and
acid phosphatases, among many others.
• The pH of lysosomes is acidic (around pH 5)…. Why?
• perform autophagy, Crinophagy … What’s that?
• Which Cells will have the highest number of lysosome?
• How Lysosomes are made - Lysosomes are formed by budding off the Golgi apparatus, and
the hydrolytic enzymes within them are formed in the endoplasmic reticulum. The enzymes are
tagged with the molecule mannose-6-phosphate, transported to the Golgi apparatus in vesicles,
and then packaged into the lysosomes.
• lysosomal storage diseases – Person lack one or other major enzyme, cell death occur, Nerve
cells in brain cannot reproduce, so they die out, person die around age 4, very rare disease.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OZdmaf2R9ys
MITOCHONDRIA
• Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles that generate most of the
chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical reactions.

• Chemical energy produced by the mitochondria is stored in a small molecule

called adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

• Mitochondria contain their own small chromosomes.

• Generally mitochondrial DNA, are inherited only from the mother. (debatable)

• Some different cells have different amounts of mitochondria because they

need more energy.
• The structure comprises an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and a gel-like
material called the matrix

• The outer membrane and the inner membrane are made of proteins and
phospholipid layers separated by the intermembrane space.
• The outer membrane covers the surface of the mitochondrion and has many special
proteins known as porins.

• It is freely permeable to ions, nutrient molecules, energy molecules like the ADP
and ATP molecules.

• The inner membrane is arranged into cristae in order to increase the surface area
available for energy production via oxidative phosphorylation.

• Store caspases responsible for triggering apoptosis

• Can transiently store calcium contributing to calcium homeostasis In brown

adipose tissue mitochondria have an alternative function of heat production using
the electron transport chain.
 CHLOROPLAST
Definition - Double-membraned cell organelles which
play a primary role in the manufacturing and storing of
food.
Types -
1)Chromoplasts- They are the color plastids, found in all
flowers, fruits and are mainly responsible for their
distinctive colors.
2)Chloroplasts- They are green colored plastids, which
comprises green-coloured pigments within the plant
cell and are called as the chlorophyll.
3)Leucoplasts- They are colorless plastids and are
mainly used for the storage of starch, lipids, and
proteins within the plant cell
Grana - Made up of stacks of disc-shaped structures
known as thylakoids. The grana of the chloroplast
consists of chlorophyll pigments and are the functional
units of chloroplasts.
Stroma - it’s the homogenous matrix which contains
grana and is like the cytoplasm in cells in which all the
organelles are embedded.
https://www.britannica.com/science/chloroplast/images-
videos
.
RIBOSOMES
• In charge of protein synthesis.
• Ribosomes are made of proteins and ribonucleic acid
• 2 subunits
• They are seen scattered in the cytoplasm and a few are connected
to the endoplasmic reticulum.
• Whenever joined to the ER they are called the rough endoplasmic
reticulum.
• Mitochondria/chloroplast Ribosome vs cell ribosomes, Prokaryotes
have 70S ribosomes while eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes.
• Importance and functions – All Organisms, Protein
• The location of the ribosomes in a cell determines what kind of
protein it makes.
• The number of ribosomes in a cell depends on the activity of the
cell.
• On average in a mammalian cell, there can be about 10 million
ribosomes.
• The existence of ribosomes is temporary, after the synthesis of
polypeptide the two sub-units separate and are reused or broken up.
 PROTEIN
STRUCTUR
E
ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM
• Continuous membrane system that forms a series of flattened sacs
within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells
• synthesis, folding, modification, and transport of proteins.
• ER lumen serves as the site of protein folding, modification, and
assembly
• Rough ER lies immediately adjacent to the cell nucleus, and its
membrane is continuous with the outer membrane of the nuclear
envelope.
• The ribosomes on rough ER specialize in the synthesis of proteins that
possess a signal sequence that directs them specifically to the ER for
processing.
• Several other proteins in a cell, including those destined for the nucleus
and mitochondria, are targeted for synthesis on free ribosomes
• Proteins synthesized by the rough ER have specific final destinations.
Some proteins, for example, remain within the ER, whereas others are
sent to the Golgi apparatus.
• Proteins secreted from the Golgi apparatus are directed to lysosomes or
to the cell membrane; still others are destined for secretion to the cell
exterior
ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM
• proximity – between rough ER to the cell nucleus. The rough ER
can rapidly send signals to the nucleus when problems in protein
synthesis and folding occur and thereby influences the overall
rate of protein translation.
• RECOVERY - When misfolded or unfolded proteins accumulate
in the ER lumen, a signaling mechanism known as the unfolded
protein response (UPR) is activated. The response is adaptive,
such that UPR activation triggers reductions in protein
synthesis and enhancements in ER protein-folding capacity
and ER-associated protein degradation. If the adaptive response
fails, cells are directed to undergo apoptosis (programmed cell
death).
• The smooth ER is involved in the synthesis of lipids, including
cholesterol and phospholipids, which are used in the production
of new cellular membrane. In certain cell types, smooth ER
plays an important role in the synthesis of steroid hormones
from cholesterol. In cells of the liver, it contributes to the
detoxification of drugs and harmful chemicals. The
sarcoplasmic reticulum is a specialized type of smooth ER that
regulates the calcium ion concentration in the cytoplasm of
striated muscle cells.
FU NCT I ONS OF ER I N SHORT
• Carry stuff Around and through it.
• Rough ER – Ribosomes, do protein related stuff – Synthesis, Packaging
• Smooth ER – Enzymes required for lipid, protection to lipid molecule, Store
ions too, So as it helps in fat related stuff, its present In large quantity in
gonadal cells producing sex hormones (Which are fatty)
DIFFERENCE
G O L G I A P PA R AT U S

• Membrane-bound organelle of eukaryotic cells.

• Responsible for transporting, modifying, and packaging proteins and lipids into vesicles
for delivery to targeted destinations.
• Three primary compartments, known generally as “cis,” “medial,” and “trans.” – Cis and
trans - sorting
• As the secretory proteins move through the Golgi apparatus, several chemical
modifications may transpire. – Carbs
• marked for delivery to specific intracellular or extracellular locations.
• Helps make lysosomes.
NUCLEUS

• Nucleus, in biology, a specialized structure occurring in most

cells
• double layer, the nuclear membrane. continuous with the
endoplasmic reticulum
• hereditary information.
• Information in DNA .
• Start of central dogma – transcription and then translation.
• Single nucleus, Coenocytic condition, no nucleus
• Nuclear membrane - fully permeable to small molecules up to
the size of the smallest proteins
• Nuclear pore complex – Nitrogen bases, nucleotide,
nucleosides, atp
• Histone – Special Markers, motifs
NUCLEOLUS
• participates in assembling the ribosomes, alteration of transfer
RNA and sensing cellular stress.

• composed of RNA and proteins, which form around specific

chromosomal regions.

• production of subunits that unites to form ribosomes.

CELLS
• Numbers, Size, Shape, organelle
distribution
Depends on Function, origin,
place
EXAMPLES
• RBC – Function to carry out transport of oxygen, Most imp function so abundant In
numbers, shaped to carry more oxygen, flat cause of need of efficient diffusion, origin is
mesodermal so function of connection.
• Neurons – impulse movement, slender, no mitosis – cannot afford mistakes in genetic
material, supported by glial cells, branched to give out impulse.
• Epithelium cells – present all over, the similar yet, on skin they flat, cheap to make and
replace. In Linings of organs associated with digestive system they cuboidal.
• Macrophages – Shape shifters, ameboid, need squeeze through capillaries and stuff.
More actin filaments and microtubule to facilitate its movements.
• WBC have most lysosome
• Enzymes and hormone producing cells will have Rough ER in abundance.
T I SSUE -
.Similar cells?, performing a function?, working together?, Same origin?
• Example of sponges – Cellular level organization
• Example of muscle – Same type cells with little variation, Blood - Origin
• Example of stomach – Many tissue coming together to perform functions
TYPES OF
TISSUES
STOMACH
AS ORGAN