Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics is a branch of physics, which deals with the microscopic

systems where Newtonian mechanics is not applicable. In general, there are some
difficulties with the classical mechanics, which are;
1. Newtonian mechanics was not applicable in the region of atomic and nuclear
dimensions.
2. The classical mechanics could not explain the observed spectrum of black
body radiations.
3. This could not explain the observed variation of specific heat of metals and gases.
4. It was not able to explain the stability/ instability of the atomic nucleus.
5. Also, could not explain the origin of discrete spectra of atoms/ X-rays.
In addition to these, there were so many phenomena that classical mechanics could
not explain such as; Photoelectric effect, Compton effect, Raman effect , etc. These
inadequacies basically open a door for the new branch of physics named as quantum
mechanics.

MCP_PH121_Ridhima Gahrotra
 Particle
The traditional understanding of a particle…

“Localized” - definite position, momentum, velocity, Energy, confined in definite

space

Wave
Characteristics of a wave….Frequency, wave length, energy, amplitude

“de-localized” – energy in the form of disturbance, spread out in space and time
 Interference, Differaction
The radiation is considered as a wave in propagation experiments based on the
interference, diffraction and polarization. These experiments prove the wave nature
of radiations because they require two waves at the same position at the same time.

The Superposition principle

Superposition of waves of different frequencies.....
Wave Particle Duality
The concept of wave nature of matter arose from the dual character of the radiation
which sometimes behaves as a wave and at the other times as a particle. For
instance, radiation is considered as a wave in propagation experiments based on the
interference, diffraction and polarization. These experiments prove the wave nature
of radiations because they require two waves at the same position at the same time.
On the other hand, it is impossible for the two particles to occupy the same position
at the same time. Publicized early in the debate about whether light was composed
of particles or waves, a wave-particle dual nature soon was found to be
characteristic of electrons as well. The evidence for the description of light as waves
was well established at the turn of the century when the photoelectric effect
introduced firm evidence of a particle nature as well. On the other hand, the particle
property of electrons was well documented.

MCP_PH121_Ridhima Gahrotra
 Wave Packet
Schrodinger postulated that a moving material particle is not equivalent to a single
wave train but equivalent to a wave packet. A wave packet consists of a group of
waves with slightly different wavelengths, velocities and phases. these component
waves will superimpose in such a way that the average velocity of component waves
is less than the velocity of light. The velocity of such wave packet is called group
velocity vg and the velocity of the individual waves forming the wave-packet is called
phase velocity.
If several waves of different wavelengths (frequencies) and phases
are superposed together, one would get a resultant which is a
localized wave packet

A wave packet describes a particle

• Weve packet is a group of waves with slightly different wavelengths interfering
with one another in a way that the amplitude of the group (envelope) is non-zero
only in the neighbourhood of the particle
• A wave packet is localized – a good representation for a particle!
 phase velocity and group velocity

• The velocities of the individual waves which superimpose to produce the wave
packet representing the particle are different - the wave packet as a whole has a
different velocity from the waves that comprise it.
• Phase velocity: The rate at which the phase of the wave propagates in space.
(velocity at which the phase of any one frequency component of the wave
propagate). The phase velocity is given in terms of the wave's angular frequency ω
and wave vector k by

• Group velocity: The rate at which the maximum amplitude or the envelope of
slowly varying amplitude of the wave packet propagates
13 Waves 11
14 Waves 11
Group velocity Vs Phase velocity

15 Waves 11
Heisenberg uncertainty principle

16 Waves 11
Schrodinger wave mechanics

17 Waves 11
18 Waves 11
19 Waves 11
20 Waves 11
21 Waves 11
 Schrodinger time independent wave equation

The equation of an ordinary one dimensional wave may be given as

1

The above equation shows a wave whose variable quantity is Ψ representing the
displacement in a wave that propagates along x-direction with the speed of wave
being v. The solution of this equation gives Ψ as a periodic displacement in terms of
time i.e.
2
Where is the amplitude of the particle wave at point (x, y, z) which is independent of
time (t). Eq. can also be written as
3
Differentiating eq. 2 with respect to t, we get
4
differentiating again
5
substituting the value of in eq 1 6
22 Waves 11
or
or 7
from de-Broglie concept λ = eq. 7 becomes
8
If E and U are the total energy and potential energy of the particle then
its kinetic energy will be given by
then Substituting in eq. 8

or 9
This is the time independent Schrodinger wave equation of a particle. If
the particle is free it potential energy will be zero the wave equation will
be 10

23 Waves 11
 Schrodinger time dependent wave equation

The equation of an ordinary one dimensional wave may be given as

1

The above equation shows a wave whose variable quantity is Ψ representing the
displacement in a wave that propagates along x-direction with the speed of wave
being v. The solution of this equation gives Ψ as a periodic displacement in terms of
time i.e.
2
Where is the amplitude of the particle wave at point (x, y, z) which is independent of
time (t). Eq. can also be written as
3
Differentiating eq. 2 with respect to t, we get

Or
24 Waves 11
substituting the value of from Schrodingr time independent wave
equation
We get

Or

Where

and

25 Waves 11
26 Waves 11
27 Waves 11
28 Waves 11
29 Waves 11
30 Waves 11
31 Waves 11
32 Waves 11
33 Waves 11
34 Waves 11
35 Waves 11
36 Waves 11
37 Waves 11
38 Waves 11
39 Waves 11
40 Waves 11