COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Lecture slides by
Dr. Arun M.
Associate Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
NITK
Inputs from and other web resources: Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and
Applications
Third Edition in SI Units
Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
McGraw-Hill, 2014
High-speed color schlieren image of the bursting of a toy balloon overfilled with
compressed air. This 1-microsecond exposure captures the shattered balloon skin and
reveals the bubble of compressed air inside beginning to expand. The balloon burst also
drives a weak spherical shock wave, visible here as a circle surrounding the balloon. The
silhouette of the photographer's hand on the air valve can be seen at center right.
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In general, fluid flows are considered as “incompressible flows” where
density variations and compressibility effects are negligible.
In this section, we lift this limitation and consider flows that involve
significant changes in density. Such flows are called “compressible flows”,
and they are frequently encountered in devices that involve the flow of
gases at very high speeds.
Compressible flow combines fluid dynamics and thermodynamics in that
both are absolutely necessary to the development of the required
theoretical background.
Hence, we develop the general relations associated with compressible flows
for an ideal gas with constant specific heats.
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We start this topic by introducing the concepts of stagnation state,
speed of sound, and Mach number for compressible flows.
The relationships between the static and stagnation fluid properties are
developed for isentropic flows of ideal gases, and they are expressed as
functions of specific heat ratios and the Mach number.
The effects of area changes for one dimensional isentropic subsonic and
supersonic flows are discussed.
These effects are illustrated by considering the isentropic flow through
converging and converging–diverging nozzles.
The concept of shock waves and the variation of flow properties across
normal and oblique shock waves will be discussed.
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Objectives
• Appreciate the consequences of compressibility
in gas flow
• Understand why a nozzle must have a diverging
section to accelerate a gas to supersonic speeds
• Predict the occurrence of shocks and calculate
property changes across a shock wave
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12–1 ■ STAGNATION PROPERTIES
Stagnation (or total) enthalpy
Static enthalpy: the ordinary enthalpy h
Energy balance (with no heat or work
interaction, no change in potential energy)
Steady flow of a fluid through an
adiabatic duct. 6
12–1 ■ STAGNATION PROPERTIES
Stagnation (or total) enthalpy
Static enthalpy: the ordinary enthalpy h
Energy balance (with no heat or work
interaction, no change in potential energy)
Aircraft and jet engines involve high
speeds, and thus the kinetic energy
Steady flow of a fluid through an term should always be considered
adiabatic duct. when analyzing them. 7
If the fluid were brought to a complete stop, the energy balance becomes
Stagnation enthalpy: The enthalpy of a fluid
when it is brought to rest adiabatically.
During a stagnation process,
the kinetic energy of a fluid is
converted to enthalpy, which
results in an increase in the
fluid temperature and
pressure.
The properties of a fluid at
the stagnation state are called
stagnation properties
(stagnation temperature,
stagnation pressure, stagnation
density, etc.).
Kinetic energy is converted to enthalpy during a
The stagnation state is
stagnation process.
indicated by the subscript 0.
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Isentropic stagnation state: When the
stagnation process is reversible as well as
adiabatic (i.e., isentropic).
The stagnation processes are often
approximated to be isentropic, and the
isentropic stagnation properties are simply
referred to as stagnation properties.
When the fluid is approximated as an ideal
gas with constant specific heats
Stagnation (or total) temperature T0 : It
represents the temperature an ideal gas
attains when it is brought to rest
adiabatically.
Dynamic temperature: V2/2cp : corresponds
The actual state, actual stagnation
to the temperature rise during such a state, and isentropic stagnation state
process. of a fluid on an h-s diagram.
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Stagnation pressure P0 :The pressure
a fluid attains when brought to rest
isentropically.
Stagnation density 0
When stagnation enthalpies are used,
the energy balance for a single-stream,
steady-flow device
The temperature of an ideal gas
flowing at a velocity V rises by
V2/2cp when it is brought to a
When the fluid is approximated as an ideal gas complete stop.
with constant specific heats
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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Lecture 3
Lecture slides by
Dr. Arun M.
Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
NITK
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Note that as the pressure decreases, the temperature and speed of
sound decrease while the fluid velocity and Mach number increase in
the flow direction.
The density decreases slowly at first and rapidly later as the fluid
velocity increases.
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Variation of normalized fluid properties and cross-sectional area along
a duct as the pressure drops from 1400 to 200 kPa.
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We note from Example that the flow area
decreases with decreasing pressure up to a
critical-pressure value (Ma = 1), and then it
begins to increase with further reductions in
pressure.
The Mach number is unity at the location of
smallest flow area, called the throat.
The velocity of the fluid keeps increasing
after passing the throat although the flow
area increases rapidly in that region.
This increase in velocity past the throat is
due to the rapid decrease in the fluid density.
The flow area of the duct considered in this
example first decreases and then increases.
Such ducts are called converging–diverging
nozzles. The cross section of a nozzle at the
These nozzles are used to accelerate gases smallest flow area is called the throat.
to supersonic speeds and should not be
confused with Venturi nozzles, which are used
strictly for incompressible flow.
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Variation of Fluid Velocity
with Flow Area
In this section, the relations for the
variation of static-to-stagnation property
ratios with the Mach number for pressure,
temperature, and density are provided.
This relation describes the variation of
pressure with flow area.
At subsonic velocities, the pressure
decreases in converging ducts (subsonic
nozzles) and increases in diverging ducts
(subsonic diffusers).
At supersonic velocities, the pressure
decreases in diverging ducts (supersonic
nozzles) and increases in converging
ducts (supersonic diffusers). Derivation of the differential form of
the energy equation for steady
isentropic flow. 28
This equation governs the shape of a nozzle or a
diffuser in subsonic or supersonic isentropic
flow.
The proper shape of a nozzle depends on the
highest velocity desired relative to the sonic
velocity. We cannot obtain supersonic velocities
To accelerate a fluid, we must use a converging by attaching a converging section to a
nozzle at subsonic velocities and a diverging converging nozzle. Doing so will only
nozzle at supersonic velocities. move the sonic cross section farther
To accelerate a fluid to supersonic velocities, we downstream and decrease the mass flow
must use a converging–diverging nozzle. rate.
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Variation of flow properties in subsonic and supersonic nozzles
and diffusers. 33
COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS
Lecture 4
Lecture slides by
Dr. Arun M.
Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
NITK
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow
of Ideal Gases
Next we develop relations between the static properties and stagnation
properties of an ideal gas in terms of the specific heat ratio k and the
Mach number Ma. We assume the flow is isentropic and the gas has
constant specific heats.
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow
of Ideal Gases
Property Relations for Isentropic Flow of Ideal Gases
The properties of a fluid at a location
where the Mach number is unity (the
throat) are called critical properties,
and called critical ratios when Ma = 1.
It is standard practice in the analysis of
compressible flow to let the
superscript asterisk (*) represent the
critical values.
Critical
ratios
(Ma=1)
When Mat = 1, the properties at the nozzle
throat become the critical properties.
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Note that as the pressure decreases, the temperature and speed of
sound decrease while the fluid velocity and Mach number increase in
the flow direction.
The density decreases slowly at first and rapidly later as the fluid
velocity increases.
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12–3 ■ ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
Converging or converging–diverging nozzles
are found in steam and gas turbines and
aircraft and spacecraft propulsion systems.
In this section we consider the effects of
back pressure (i.e., the pressure applied at
the nozzle discharge region) on the exit
velocity, the mass flow rate, and the
pressure distribution along the nozzle.
Converging Nozzles
Mass flow rate through a nozzle
Maximum mass flow rate
The effect of back pressure on the pressure
distribution along a converging nozzle.
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Ma* is the local
velocity
nondimensionalized
with respect to the
sonic velocity at the
throat.
Ma is the local velocity
nondimensionalized
with respect to the
local sonic velocity.
Various property
ratios for isentropic
flow through
nozzles and
diffusers are listed
in Table A–13 for k =
1.4 for convenience.
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Converging–Diverging Nozzles
The highest velocity in a converging nozzle is limited to the sonic velocity (Ma = 1),
which occurs at the exit plane (throat) of the nozzle.
Accelerating a fluid to supersonic velocities (Ma > 1) can be accomplished only by
attaching a diverging flow section to the subsonic nozzle at the throat (a converging–
diverging nozzle), which is standard equipment in supersonic aircraft and rocket
propulsion.
Converging–diverging nozzles are commonly used
in rocket engines to provide high thrust. 54
When Pb = P0 (case A), there will be no flow
through the nozzle.
1. When P0 > Pb > PC, the flow remains
subsonic throughout the nozzle, and the
mass flow is less than that for choked flow.
The fluid velocity increases in the first
(converging) section and reaches a
maximum at the throat (but Ma < 1).
However, most of the gain in velocity is lost
in the second (diverging) section of the
nozzle, which acts as a diffuser. The pressure
decreases in the converging section, reaches
a minimum at the throat, and increases at
the expense of velocity in the diverging
section.
The effects of back
pressure on the flow
through a converging–
diverging nozzle. 55
2. When Pb = PC, the throat pressure becomes
P* and the fluid achieves sonic velocity at the
throat. But the diverging section of the nozzle
still acts as a diffuser, slowing the fluid to
subsonic velocities. The mass flow rate that
was increasing with decreasing Pb also reaches
its maximum value.
3. When PC > Pb > PE, the fluid that achieved a
sonic velocity at the throat continues
accelerating to supersonic velocities in the
diverging section as the pressure decreases.
This acceleration comes to a sudden stop,
however, as a normal shock develops at a
section between the throat and the exit plane,
which causes a sudden drop in velocity to
subsonic levels and a sudden increase in
pressure. The fluid then continues to
decelerate further in the remaining part of the
converging–diverging nozzle.
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4. When PE > Pb > 0, the flow in the
diverging section is supersonic, and the
fluid expands to PF at the nozzle exit with
no normal shock forming within the nozzle.
Thus, the flow through the nozzle can be
approximated as isentropic.
When Pb = PF, no shocks occur within or
outside the nozzle.
When Pb < PF, irreversible mixing and
expansion waves occur downstream of the
exit plane of the nozzle.
When Pb > PF, however, the pressure of the
fluid increases from PF to Pb irreversibly in
the wake of the nozzle exit, creating what
are called oblique shocks.
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COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS:
Shock waves
Lecture slides by
Dr. Arun M.
Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
NITK
Inputs from and other web resources: Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and
Applications
Third Edition in SI Units
Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
McGraw-Hill, 2014
■ SHOCK WAVES
For some back pressure values, abrupt changes in fluid properties occur in a very thin
section of a converging–diverging nozzle under supersonic flow conditions, creating a
shock wave.
We study the conditions under which shock waves develop and how they affect the flow.
Normal Shocks
Normal shock waves: The shock waves
that occur in a plane normal to the
direction of flow. The flow process
through the shock wave is highly
irreversible.
Schlieren image of a normal shock in a Laval
nozzle. The Mach number in the nozzle just
upstream (to the left) of the shock wave is
about 1.3. Boundary layers distort the shape
of the normal shock near the walls and lead to
flow separation beneath the shock.
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Conservation of mass Control volume for flow across a
normal shock wave.
Conservation of energy
Conservation of momentum
Increase of entropy
Fanno line: Combining the conservation of
mass and energy relations into a single
equation and plotting it on an h-s diagram yield
a curve. It is the locus of states that have the
same value of stagnation enthalpy and mass
flux.
Rayleigh line: Combining the conservation of
mass and momentum equations into a single
equation and plotting it on the h-s diagram
yield a curve.
The h-s diagram for flow
across a normal shock. 63
The relations between various properties before and after the
shock for an ideal gas with constant specific heats.
Various flow property ratios across the
shock are listed in Table A–14.
This represents the intersections of
the Fanno and Rayleigh lines.
Variation of flow properties
across a normal shock in an
ideal gas.
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The air inlet of a supersonic
fighter jet is designed such that a
shock wave at the inlet
decelerates the air to subsonic
velocities, increasing the pressure Schlieren image of a small model of the space shuttle
and temperature of the air before orbiter being tested at Mach 3 in the supersonic wind
tunnel of the Penn State Gas Dynamics Lab. Several oblique
it enters the engine.
shocks are seen in the air surrounding the spacecraft.
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Since the flow across the shock
is adiabatic and irreversible,
the second law of
thermodynamics requires that
the entropy increase across the
shock wave.
Thus, a shock wave cannot
exist for values of Ma1 less
than unity where the entropy
change would be negative.
For adiabatic flows, shock
Entropy change across the normal shock. waves can exist only for
supersonic flows, Ma1 > 1.
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Fluid Machinery: Pumps,
Compressors & Turbines
Lecture slides by
Dr. Arun M.
Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
NITK
Inputs from and other web resources: Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and
Applications
Third Edition in SI Units
Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
McGraw-Hill, 2014
Pump Performance Curves
Typical pump performance curves for a centrifugal pump with
backward inclined blades; the curve shapes for other types of pumps
may differ, and the curves change as shaft rotation speed is changed
Figure: The impeller (rotating portion) of the three main
categories of dynamic pumps: (a) centrifugal flow,
(b) mixed flow, and (c) axial flow.
Centrifugal Pump
• Centrifugal pumps and blowers can be
easily identified by their snail-shaped
casing, called the scroll.
• They are found all around your home—
in dishwashers, hot tubs, clothes
washers and dryers, hairdryers, vacuum
cleaners, kitchen exhaust hoods,
bathroom exhaust fans, leaf blowers,
furnaces, etc. They are used in cars—
the water pump in the engine, the air
blower in the heater/air conditioner
unit, etc.
Centrifugal Pump
Three types of centrifugal pump: Backward-inclined
blades, Radial blades, and Forward-inclined blades.
Centrifugal Pump
The three main types of centrifugal pumps are those with
(a) backwardinclined blades, (b) radial blades, and (c) forward-
inclined blades; (d) comparison of net head and brake
horsepower performance curves for the three types of
centrifugal pumps.
Centrifugal Pump
Centrifugal pumps with backward-inclined blades are the most
common. These yield the highest efficiency of the three because fluid
flows into and out of the blade passages with the least amount of
turning.
Sometimes the blades are airfoil shaped, yielding similar performance
but even higher efficiency. The pressure rise is intermediate between
the other two types of centrifugal pumps.
Centrifugal pumps with radial blades (also called straight blades, have
the simplest geometry and produce the largest pressure rise of the
three for a wide range of volume flow rates, but the pressure rise
decreases rapidly after the point of maximum efficiency.
Centrifugal pumps with forward-inclined blades produce a pressure
rise that is nearly constant, albeit lower than that of radial or
backward-inclined blades, over a wide range of volume flow rates.
Centrifugal Pump
Forward-inclined centrifugal pumps generally have more blades, but
the blades are smaller. Centrifugal pumps with forward-inclined
blades generally have a lower maximum efficiency than do straight-
bladed pumps.
Radial and backward-inclined centrifugal pumps are preferred for
applications where one needs to provide volume flow rate and
pressure rise within a narrow range of values. If a wider range of
volume flow rates and/or pressure rises are desired, the performance
of radial pumps and backward-inclined pumps may not be able to
satisfy the new requirements; these types of pumps are less forgiving
(less robust). The performance of forward-inclined pumps is more
forgiving and accommodates a wider variation, at the cost of lower
efficiency and less pressure rise per unit of input power. If a pump is
needed to produce large pressure rise over a wide range of volume
flow rates, the forward-inclined centrifugal pump is attractive.
Centrifugal Pump
Compressor
Compressor
Centrifugal pump vs compressor
