Computer Networks

Chapter 3

Data and Signals

Anam Taskeen
Signals
❑ To be transmitted, data must be transformed to
electromagnetic signals.

▪ Figure 3.1 shows a scenario in which a scientist

working in a research company, Sky Research,
needs to order a book related to her research from
an online bookseller, Scientific Books.
▪ Five different levels of communication between
Alice, the computer on which scientist is working,
and Bob, the computer that provides online service.
Communication at application, transport, network,
or data-link is logical; communication at the
physical layer is physical.
▪ Although Alice and Bob need to exchange data,
communication at the physical layer means
exchanging signals. Data need to be transmitted
and received, but the media have to change data to
signals. Both data and the signals that represent
them can be either analog or digital in form.
Analog and Digital Data
❑ The term analog data refers to information ❑ The term digital data refers to information

that is continuous. that has discrete states.

❑ Analog data take on continuous values, can ❑ Digital data take on discrete values, can have

have an infinite number of values in a range. only a limited number of values.

❑ For example, an analog clock that has hour, ❑ A digital clock that reports the hours and the

minute, and second hands gives information minutes will change suddenly from 8:05 to

in a continuous form; the movements of the 8:06.

hands are continuous. ❑ The vertical lines of the digital signal,

❑ An analog signal has infinitely many levels of however, demonstrate the sudden jump that

intensity over a period of time. As the wave the signal makes from value to value.

moves from value A to value B, it passes

through and includes an infinite number of
values along its path.
Analog and Digital Data
Periodic and Non-periodic
❑ Both analog and digital signals can take one of two forms: periodic or non-periodic.

❑ A periodic signal completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a period, and repeats that pattern over
subsequent identical periods. The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle. A non-periodic signal changes
without exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats over time.

❑ Both analog and digital signals can be periodic or non-periodic. In data communications, we commonly use periodic
analog signals and non-periodic digital signals.

Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite. A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot
be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine waves.
Periodic analog signals
Periodic analog signals
Periodic analog signals

❑Example 3.1 : The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz (50 Hz in Europe). The period of this sine wave
can be determined as?
Periodic analog signals

❑Example 3.2 : Express a period of 100 ms in microseconds.

❑Example 3.3: The period of a signal is 100 ms. What is its frequency in kilohertz?
Periodic analog signals

❑ Frequency is the relationship of a signal to time and that the frequency of a wave is the number of cycles it
completes in 1 s.

❑ Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.

❑ Change in a short span of time means high frequency.

❑ Change over a long span of time means low frequency.

❑ If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero.

❑ If a signal changes instantaneously, its frequency is infinite.

Periodic analog signals

❑ The term phase, or phase shift, describes the position of the waveform relative to time 0. If we think of the wave as
something that can be shifted backward or forward along the time axis, phase describes the amount of that shift. It
indicates the status of the first cycle

❑ Phase is measured in degrees or radians [360º is 2π rad; 1º is 2π/360 rad, and 1 rad is 360/(2π)]. A phase shift of
360º corresponds to a shift of a complete period; a phase shift of 180° corresponds to a shift of one-half of a period;
and a phase shift of 90º corresponds to a shift of one-quarter of a period.

Different phases:

a) A sine wave with a phase of 0° starts at time 0 with a zero amplitude. The amplitude is increasing.

b) A sine wave with a phase of 90° starts at time 0 with a peak amplitude. The amplitude is decreasing.

c) A sine wave with a phase of 180° starts at time 0 with a zero amplitude. The amplitude is decreasing.
Periodic analog signals

❑Example 3.4: A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its phase in degrees and radians? .
Periodic analog signals

❑Wavelength is another characteristic of a signal traveling through a transmission medium. Wavelength binds the period
or the frequency of a simple sine wave to the propagation speed of the medium.

❑While the frequency of a signal is independent of the medium, the wavelength depends on both the frequency and the
medium. Wavelength is a property of any type of signal. In data communications, we often use wavelength to describe
the transmission of light in an optical fiber. The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in one period.
Periodic analog signals
Periodic analog signals

❑A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its amplitude, frequency, and phase. To show the relationship between
amplitude and frequency, we can use a frequency-domain plot. The time-domain plot shows changes in signal
amplitude with respect to time (it is an amplitude-versus-time plot). Phase is not explicitly shown on a time-domain plot.
A frequency-domain plot is concerned with only the peak value and the frequency.
Periodic analog signals

❑Wavelength is another characteristic of a signal traveling through a transmission medium. Wavelength binds the period
or the frequency of a simple sine wave to the propagation speed of the medium.

❑While the frequency of a signal is independent of the medium, the wavelength depends on both the frequency and the
medium. Wavelength is a property of any type of signal. In data communications, we often use wavelength to describe
the transmission of light in an optical fiber. The wavelength is the distance a simple signal can travel in one period.
Composite Analog Signal
❑ A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in data communications; we need to send a composite signal, a signal
made of many simple sine waves.
❑ According to Fourier analysis, any composite signal is a combination of simple sine waves with different
frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.
❑ If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series of signals with discrete frequencies; if the
composite signal is non-periodic, the decomposition gives a combination of sine waves with continuous
frequencies.
Composite Analog Signal
❑ A non-periodic composite signal can be the signal created by a microphone or a telephone set when a word or two
is pronounced. In this case, the composite signal cannot be periodic, because that implies that we are repeating the
same word or words with exactly the same tone.

❑ In a time-domain representation of this composite signal, there are an infinite number of simple sine frequencies.
Although the number of frequencies in a human voice is infinite, the range is limited. A normal human being can
create a continuous range of frequencies between 0 and 4 kHz
Composite Analog Signal
❑ The range of frequencies contained in a
composite signal is its bandwidth. The
bandwidth is normally a difference between two
numbers. For example, if a composite signal
contains frequencies between 1000 and 5000,
its bandwidth is 5000 − 1000, or 4000.

❑ Figure 3.13 shows the concept of bandwidth.

The figure depicts two composite signals, one
periodic and the other non-periodic. The
bandwidth of the periodic signal contains all
integer frequencies between 1000 and 5000
(1000, 1001, 1002, . . .). The bandwidth of the
non-periodic signals has the same range, but the
frequencies are continuous.
Periodic analog signals

❑Example 3.5: If a periodic signal is decomposed into

five sine waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500,
700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw the
spectrum, assuming all components have a
maximum amplitude of 10 V.
DIGITAL SIGNALS
A digital signal can have more than two levels. In
this case, we can send more than 1 bit for each
level. Figure 3.17 shows two signals, one with two
levels and the other with four. We send 1 bit per
level in part a of the figure and 2 bits per level in
part b of the figure.

In general, if a signal has L levels, each level

needs log2 L bits. For this reason, we can send
log2 4 = 2 bits in part b.
Digital signals

❑Example 3.6: A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level?

❑We calculate the number of bits from the following formula. Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.
❑Example 3.7: A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are needed per level?
❑We calculate the number of bits by using the formula. Each signal level is represented by 3.17 bits. However, this
answer is not realistic. The number of bits sent per level needs to be an integer as well as a power of 2. For this
example, 4 bits can represent one level.
Digital signals

❑Most digital signals are non-periodic, and thus period and frequency are not appropriate characteristics. Another term
—bit rate (instead of frequency)—is used to describe digital signals. The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s,
expressed in bits per second (bps). Figure 3.17 shows the bit rate for two signals.
❑Example 3.8: Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages per second. What is the
required bit rate of the channel?
❑A page is an average of 24 lines with 80 characters in each line. If we assume that one character requires 8 bits, the
bit rate is:

❑Example 3.9: A digitized voice channel, as we will see in Chapter 4, is made by digitizing a 4-kHz bandwidth analog
voice signal. We need to sample the signal at twice the highest frequency (two samples per hertz). We assume that
each sample requires 8 bits. What is the required bit rate?
Digital signals

❑The concept of the wavelength for an analog signal: the distance one cycle occupies on the transmission medium. We
can define something similar for a digital signal: the bit length. The bit length is the distance one bit occupies on the
transmission medium.
❑Bit length = propagation speed * bit duration
❑Digital Signal as a Composite Analog Signal:
Based on Fourier analysis, a digital signal is a composite analog signal where the bandwidth is infinite, A digital signal, in
the time domain, comprises connected vertical and horizontal line segments. A vertical line in the time domain means a
frequency of infinity (sudden change in time); a horizontal line in the time domain means a frequency of zero (no change
in time). Going from a frequency of zero to a frequency of infinity (and vice versa) implies all frequencies in between are
part of the domain.
Fourier analysis can be used to decompose a digital signal. If the digital signal is periodic, which is rare in data
communications, the decomposed signal has a frequency domain representation with an infinite bandwidth and discrete
frequencies. If the digital signal is non-periodic, the decomposed signal still has an infinite bandwidth, but the
frequencies are continuous. Figure 3.18 shows a periodic and a non-periodic digital signal and their bandwidths.
Digital signals
Digital signals

❑Transmission of Digital Signals:

The fundamental question is, How can we send a digital signal from point A to point B? We can transmit a digital signal
by using one of two different approaches: baseband transmission or broadband transmission (using modulation).
Baseband transmission means sending a digital signal over a channel without changing the digital signal to an analog
signal. Figure 3.19 shows baseband transmission

Baseband transmission requires that we have a low-pass channel, a channel with a bandwidth that starts from zero. This
is the case if we have a dedicated medium with a bandwidth constituting only one channel. For example, the entire
bandwidth of a cable connecting two computers is one single channel. (Bus Topology)
Digital signals
❑Case 1: Low-Pass Channel with Wide Bandwidth:
If we want to preserve the exact form of a non-periodic digital signal with vertical segments vertical and horizontal segments
horizontal, we need to send the entire spectrum, the continuous range of frequencies between zero and infinity. This is possible
if we have a dedicated medium with an infinite bandwidth between the sender and receiver that preserves the exact amplitude
of each component of the composite signal. Although this may be possible inside a computer (e.g., between CPU and memory),
it is not possible between two devices. Fortunately, the amplitudes of the frequencies at the border of the bandwidth are so
small that they can be ignored. This means that if we have a medium, such as a coaxial or fiber optic cable, with a very wide
bandwidth, two stations can communicate by using digital signals with very good accuracy, as shown in Figure 3.21. Note that
f1 is close to zero, and f2 is very high.
Digital signals
❑Case 2: Low-Pass Channel with Limited Bandwidth
In a low-pass channel with limited bandwidth, we approximate the digital signal with an analog signal. The level of
approximation depends on the bandwidth available.
Rough Approximation: Let us assume that we have a digital signal of bit rate N. If we want to send analog signals to roughly
simulate this signal, we need to consider the worst case, a maximum number of changes in the digital signal. This happens
when the signal carries the sequence 01010101 . . . or the sequence 10101010. . . . To simulate these two cases, we need an
analog signal of frequency f = N/2. Let 1 be the positive peak value and 0 be the negative peak value. We send 2 bits in each
cycle; the frequency of the analog signal is one-half of the bit rate, or N/2. However, just this one frequency cannot make all
patterns; we need more components. The maximum frequency is N/2. As an example of this concept, let us see how a digital
signal with a 3-bit pattern can be simulated by using analog signals. Figure 3.22 shows the idea. The two similar cases (000
and 111) are simulated with a signal with frequency f = 0 and a phase of 180° for 000 and a phase of 0° for 111. The two worst
cases (010 and 101) are simulated with an analog signal with frequency f = N/2 and phases of 180° and 0°. The other four
cases can only be simulated with an analog signal with f = N/4 and phases of 180°, 270°, 90°, and 0°. In other words, we need
a channel that can handle frequencies 0, N/4, and N/2. This rough approximation is referred to as using the first harmonic (N/2)
frequency. The required bandwidth is: Bandwidth = N/2 – 0 = N/2
Digital signals
Digital signals
❑Case 2: Low-Pass Channel with Limited Bandwidth
Better Approximation: To make the shape of the analog signal look more like that of a digital signal, we need to add
more harmonics of the frequencies. We need to increase the bandwidth. We can increase the bandwidth to 3N/2, 5N/2,
7N/2, and so on. Figure 3.23 shows the effect of this increase for one of the worst cases, the pattern 010. Note that we
have shown only the highest frequency for each harmonic. We use the first, third, and fifth harmonics. The required
bandwidth is now 5N/2, the difference between the lowest frequency 0 and the highest frequency 5N/2. As we
emphasized before, we need to remember that the required bandwidth is proportional to the bit rate.
Digital signals
Digital signals
❑Example 3.10: What is the required bandwidth of a low-pass channel if we need to send 1 Mbps by using baseband
transmission?

The answer depends on the accuracy desired

a) The minimum bandwidth, a rough approximation, is B = bit rate /2, or 500 kHz. We need a low-pass channel with
frequencies between 0 and 500 kHz.
b) A better result can be achieved by using the first and the third harmonics with the required bandwidth B = 3 × 500
kHz = 1.5 MHz.
c) A still better result can be achieved by using the first, third, and fifth harmonics with B = 5 × 500 kHz = 2.5 MHz.
Digital signals
❑Broadband Transmission (Using Modulation)
Broadband transmission or modulation means changing the digital signal to an analog signal for transmission.
Modulation allows us to use a bandpass channel—a channel with a bandwidth that does not start from zero. This type of
channel is more available than a low-pass channel. Figure 3.24 shows a bandpass channel. A low-pass channel can be
considered a bandpass channel with the lower frequency starting at zero.
Digital signals
❑Figure 3.25 shows the modulation of a digital
signal. In the figure, a digital signal is converted
to a composite analog signal. We have used a
single-frequency analog signal (called a carrier);
the amplitude of the carrier has been changed to
look like the digital signal. The result, however,
is not a single-frequency signal; it is a composite
signal. At the receiver, the received analog
signal is converted to digital, and the result is a
replica of what has been sent.
❑If the available channel is a bandpass channel,
we cannot send the digital signal directly to the
channel; we need to convert the digital signal to
an analog signal before transmission