POLYMER MATERIALS

ANALYSIS I
TFE 3106
Lecture 5_Unit 5_ANALYSIS OF BASIC MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

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 ANALYSIS OF BASIC MECHANICAL
2

PROPERTIES
Most engineers are primarily concerned with the development of machines, structures &
products of various kinds.
 These constructions are usually subjected to loads & deformation hence the properties of
materials under the action of loads & deformation is an important engineering consideration
 The macroscopic properties of materials under applied forces or loads are broadly classified
as mechanical properties.
 Mechanical properties are a measure of the strength and lasting characteristics of a
material in service.
 Mechanical properties are of great importance particularly to the design engineer
 Mechanical properties cannot be derived from structural or bonding considerations alone
because most of them are structure-sensitive.
 The study of mechanical behaviour of materials, therefore, requires the knowledge of both
mechanical properties and various tests performed under the varied conditions found in
engineering practice.
 Principle of analysis is applied to fibres & their products, polymer materials and metal
materials. 12/16/2024

 Equations, calculations and statistical analysis of data employed

 Isotropy and Anisotropy
3
 Important assumptions in strength of materials are that the body being analysed is
continuous, homogeneous and isotropic.
 A body is said to be continuous when it does not contain voids or empty spaces of any kind
 A body is homogeneous if it has identical properties at all points
 A body is considered isotropic with respect to some property when the property does not
vary with direction or orientation
 A body is said to be anisotropic when properties vary in different directions
 Isotropic anisotropic nature of a material usually results from the nature of symmetry of the
crystal
 Polycrystalline materials such as steel, cast iron, aluminium and other metals can be
regarded as isotropic on a gross or macroscopic scale because of the random distribution of
crystals
 Amorphous materials such as glass and many polymers are isotropic, both on microscopic
and macroscopic scales
 Materials like wood, laminated plastics and various composite materials are highly 12/16/2024
anisotropic
 Stress-strain relations
 Materials subjected to a load may deform, yield or break, depending upon the magnitude of the
4 load, the nature of material & its cross-sectional dimensions
 A body under loading deforms, i.e. it changes in shape or dimensions. The deformation does not
take place instantaneously but increases steadily till it stops. As long as the process of deformation
continues, the material of the body exerts continuously increasing resistance to the load. The
instant the deformation stops, the body is said to be in a state of equilibrium under the load applied
and the internal resistances of the body. This clearly implies that both must be equal and opposite
 The sum total of all the elementary interatomic forces or the internal resistances which the body is
called upon to exert to counteract the applied load is called stress and the resultant deformation
expressed as a fractional change in dimension is termed strain.

 Explain the graph

 Ductile materials can endure a
large strain before rupture
 Brittle materials endure a small
strain before rupture
 Toughness is the area under a
stress strain curve

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 Hooke’s Law and Modulus of
5
Material
In the elastic region of the material, the relationship between stress and the
corresponding strain is governed by Hook’s law which states that stress is
proportional to strain and independent of time.
 The law generally applies to most elastic materials for very small strains.
 In an isotropic material each stress will induce corresponding strain, while in an
anisotropic material a single stress component may produce more than one type of
strain
 According to Hooke’s law, the ratio of stress to strain is a constant characteristic of a
material, and this proportionality constant is called modulus of the material.
 Modulus of a material differs between material and material, as well as between one
type of stress and another in the same material.
 In tensile and compressive stress it is called Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus
(E)
 In shear stress it is called the Modulus of Rigidity (G)
 In volumetric distortions, it is called Bulk Modulus (K)
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 Poisson’s Ratio (μ)
6
 Is an important elastic constant
 When a specimen is stressed by a uniaxial force, it commonly deforms in the
direction of that force (axial strain), and there is a corresponding adjustment
in dimensions normal to the direction of the force (lateral strain)
 Poisson’s ratio expresses the relationship existing between the lateral strain
and axial strain
 The value of Poisson's ratio varies with different materials.
 For most structural materials the Poisson’s ratio is between 0.3 and 0.6

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 Loading conditions for Mechanical
7
Tests
 Mechanical tests may be conducted under various loading
conditions:
 Static loading: The load is increased slowly and gradually and the
material is loaded by tension, compression, torsion or bending.
 Dynamic loading: The load increases rapidly as in impact
 Repeated or Fatigue loading: (Both static and impact type of
loading). The load repeatedly varies in the course of the test
either in value or both in value and in direction.

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Fundamental Properties
 Strength: Capacity to withstand destruction under the action of external loads. The stronger the
material, the greater the load it can withstand. Strength, therefore, determines the ability of a material
8 to withstand stress without failure. It varies according to type of loading, e.g. tensile, compressive,
shearing or torsional loading.
 Elasticity: Ability of a material to return back to its original position after deformation when the stress
or load is released.
 Stiffness: Resistance of a material to elastic deformation or deflection. A material which suffers slight
deformation under load has a high degree of stiffness. Flexibility is used as the opposite of stiffness.
 Resilience: Capacity of a material to absorb energy elastically. The strain or internal energy stored is
given off on removal of load. High resilience is associated with high elastic limit.
 Plasticity: Ability to undergo some degree of permanent deformation without rupture. Takes place only
after the elastic range has been exceeded.
 Toughness: Ability to withstand both plastic and elastic deformation. It is the amount of energy a
material can absorb before actual fracture or failure takes place.
 Ductility and Malleability: Ductility is property of a material which enables it to draw out into thin
wire. Malleability is the ability to be flattened into sheets without cracking by pressing, rolling,
hammering, etc.
 Hardness, Hardenability & Brittleness: Hardness: Hardness refers to the ability of a material to
resist indentation (scratching, abrasion, cutting or penetration) or deformation. Hardenability is the
degree of hardness that can be imparted to a material by the process of hardening. Brittleness is the
property of breaking or shattering without much permanent distortion.
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 Fatigue: The failure of a material under a repeatedly applied stress.

 Considerations in Analysis of Mechanical
9
Properties
 Principle factors are in three main areas
 manner in which the load is applied
 condition of material specimen at time of test
 surrounding conditions (environment) during testing
 Tests classification- load application
 kind of stress induced. Single load or Multiple loads
 rate at which stress is developed: static versus dynamic
 number of cycles of load application: single versus fatigue
 flexure shear
Primary types of loading
compression
tension

torsion

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 Analysis of Tensile Properties
 Tensile tests yield:
10
 Tensile strain, yield strength & yield
stress
 Young’s modulus (Modulus of Elasticity
or Tensile Modulus). This is the slope
of stress/strain in linear region
 Point where plastic deformation occurs
NB: some materials do not have a distinct
yield point so an offset method is used
strain, ε

 Stress is measured load/original cross-sectional area

 True stress is load/actual area
 True stress is impractical to use since area is changing
 Engineering stress or stress is most common.
 Strain is elongation / original length.
 Modulus of elasticity is stress / strain in the linear region
 Note: the nominal stress (engineering) stress equals
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true stress, except where large plastic deformation
 Universal Testing Machines
11 (UTMs)
[tensile, flexural,  compression]
UTMs test specimens in tension,
compression and flexural modes
 The machines consist essentially of
two parts:
 The unit for applying a load to the
specimen
 The measuring device for the
measurement of the load on the
specimen
 The material to be tested is machined
to standard dimensions & attached to
the jaws of the testing machine

Explain or illustrate how the

testing is done in tension,
compression & flexural modes
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 Tensile Strength Testing
 Load is applied uniaxially in a tensile testing frame and the displacement is recorded.
12 The stress is plotted against strain to generate the stress-strain curve. Different
properties are calculated from this curve.

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 Summary of Tensile Strength
13 Testing
Standards: ASTM D5083-02/ D3039/ISO 3268-75, etc
 It’s a test most universally employed to express mechanical
properties & to supply the most useful fundamental information
regarding the behaviour of materials in the tensile test
tension  The specimen is placed in the grips of the testing machine
 Attach the extension indicator
 Set the speed of testing at the proper rate as required and start the
machine.
 Record the load-extension curve of the specimen.
 Record the load and extension at the yield point (if one exists) and
the load and extension at the moment of rupture
 Test at least five specimens for each sample in the case of isotropic
materials.
 Test ten specimens, five normal to, and five parallel with the
Important principal axis of anisotropy, for each sample in the case of
Parameters anisotropic materials.
 Length of specimen  Discard specimens that break at some obvious fortuitous flaw, or
 Gauge length of that do not break between grips. Make retests, unless such flaws
specimen constitute a variable to be studied 12/16/2024
 Width of specimen  Test data obtained by these testing standards is relevant and

 Revision
14
 With reference to A level Physics students should be able to sketch
tension-test diagrams for different materials, e.g. low carbon steel,
plastics etc.
 On these diagrams students should be able to label, explain & calculate
(where relevant) parameters such as:
 Elastic limit and Proportional limit (Elasticity Properties)
 Yield Strength and Tensile Strength (Strength Properties)
 Elongation and Reduction of area (Ductility properties)
 Young’s Modulus (Stiffness Property)
 Resilience and Toughness (Energy Capacity Properties)
 Breaking Strength (Rupture Property)
 Students should also refer to other previous courses on Mechanics of
Materials
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 Analysis of Tensile Strength Data
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠h𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡Strain is unitless
15 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏=
𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡h
Explain all these terms
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 Commonly used units
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔=
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 for Stress are GPa or
MPa
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂=𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡h × 𝑡h𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 For rectangle
specimens
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠h𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑪𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅= Commonly used crosshead speed
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 units are mm/min

𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠h𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 Commonly used strain rate units are

𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆=
𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡h

′ 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 Commonly used Young’s Modulus units are

𝒀𝒐𝒖𝒏 𝒈 𝒔 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒍𝒖𝒔=
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 GPa or MPa

and 1GPa=1000MPa 12/16/2024

Exercise
A polymer composite material was tested on a UTM and results shown in the table
16 below were obtained.
Crosshead
displacement Load (kN) Time (s)
(mm)

0.121 0.075 3.624

The dimensions of the specimen were as follows;

Specimen Length – 250 mm
Gauge length – 150 mm
Width – 25 mm
Thickness – 3.6 mm

Calculate;
 The crosshead speed
 Strain rate
 Young’s Modulus of the polymer composite material. 12/16/2024

Due date: Monday 03 November 2023

17 Analysis of testing data & Plotting of graphs

 Use assignment data

 Analyse the data
 Make necessary calculations in Excel or Origin before the graphs
 Use Excel or Origin to plot the graphs
 Analyse the graphs

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 Compression tests
18
 A compression test is conducted in a manner similar to the tensile test,
except that the force is compressive and the specimen contracts along
the direction of the stress.
 By convention, a compressive force is taken to be negative, which yields
a negative stress.
 Tensile tests are more common because they are easier to perform; also,
for most materials used in structural applications, very little additional
information is obtained from compressive tests.
 Compressive tests are used when a material’s behaviour under large
and permanent (i.e., plastic) strains is desired, as in manufacturing
applications, or when the material is brittle in tension.

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 Analysis of Flexural Properties
19
 Example of standards used: ASTM D 790 – 03
 These tests generally utilize a three-point loading (3-point bending) system
applied to a simply supported beam.
 A four-point loading (4-point bending) system can be utilised especially for
materials that do not fail by the maximum strain allowed under 3-point bending
(ASTM D 6272)
 The basic difference between 3-point bending and 4-point bending is in the
location of the maximum bending moment and maximum axial fiber stresses.
 The maximum axial fiber stresses occur on a line under the loading nose in 3-
point bending and over the area between the loading noses in 4-point bending.
 Flexural properties may vary with specimen depth, temperature, atmospheric
conditions, and the difference in rate of straining.

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 Summary of Flexural Test Method
20
3-point bending

 A bar of rectangular cross section rests on two supports and is loaded by means
of a loading nose midway between the supports
 A support span-to-depth ratio of 16:1 is normally used unless there is reason to
suspect that a larger span-to-depth ratio may be required, as may be the case
for certain laminated materials
 The specimen is deflected until rupture occurs in the outer surface of the test
specimen or until a maximum strain of 5.0 % is reached, whichever occurs first.
 Flexural properties are useful for quality control and specification purposes.
 Parameters needed for testing are width, thickness, test rate and strain end
point.

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 Shear and torsional tests

 A shear test is designed to apply stress to a test sample so that it experiences a sliding failure
21 along a plane that is parallel to the forces applied.
 Generally, shear forces cause one surface of a material to move in one direction and the other
surface to move in the opposite direction so that the material is stressed in a sliding motion.
 Shear tests differ from tension and compression tests in that the forces applied are parallel to
the two contact surface, whereas, in tension and compression they are perpendicular to the
contact surfaces.
 The most common use of a shear test is to determine the shear strength, which is the maximum
shear stress that the material can withstand before failure occurs, of a material. This is a very
important design characteristic of many types of fasteners such as bolts and screws. For
example, when a bolt is used to secure two plates together it will experience a shear forces if
the plates themselves experience any forces parallel to their plane that attempt to separate
them. If the small fastener fails in shear it may lead to a chain of failures that could lead to the
entire destruction of a much larger structure.
 Generally, there are two common types of shear tests. The first requires that the sample be
setup in a modified three-point flexure or four-point bend fixture. The purpose of this test is to
load the sample so that it experiences double shear or so that the sample has two locations
where the forces are applied. Each end of the sample is anchored and the force is applied over
the middle of the sample in an attempt to remove the midsection so that both ends are left
behind. The second test requires that the sample have tapered ends that are each placed into
grip fixtures that have been offset from the vertical axis of the sample. The sample is then
pulled so that the opposite faces are pulled in opposing directions.
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 Shear and torsional tests cont…
22  Torsion is a variation of pure shear in which a structural member is twisted.
Torsional forces produce a rotational motion about the longitudinal axis of one end
of the member relative to the other end. Examples of torsion are found for
machine axles and drive shafts as well as for twist drills. Torsional tests are
normally performed on cylindrical solid shafts or tubes.
 Three materials are commonly tested in shear: rigid substrates, adhesives, and
layered composites. Rigid substrates may be composed of metals, plastics,
ceramics, composites or woods but usually come in a solid form and are used as
building materials or fasteners. Adhesives are used to bond two materials together
and experience shear stress when the materials are pulled in opposing directions
in an attempt to slide them apart. Layered composites experience shear stress in
a similar manner to adhesives as the shear forces are applied to the glue or
laminate used to hold the layers together.

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23
Hardness
 Hardness is measured as the resistance to penetration of a material by
an indenter (impresser) which can have a variety of shapes
 Hardness tests consist of measuring the resistance to plastic
deformation of layers of material near the surface of the specimen.
 Three most important forms of hardness test are:
 Rockwell Hardness Test
 Brinell Hardness Test
 Vickers Hardness Test
Another one is
 Shore or Rebound Hardness Test

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 Barrier and Permeation
 Essential across a wide range of industries such as packaging, medical, cosmetics
24 Properties
or food manufacturers
 Polymers and plastics are permeable and their barrier properties may impact their
suitability for a specific application.
 In packaging, for example, ineffective barrier properties may render the enclosed
product vulnerable to surrounding environmental factors, such as water, humidity,
and oxygen, including its future storage.
 Test can be done by measurement of transmission rate for gases which is the
quantity of gas that is able to pass through a specific area of the plastic material
over time. The main gases that affect the shelf life and packaged stability of most
products are oxygen and water vapour
 Parameters to measure include:
 Water Vapour Transmission Rate (WVTR)
 Oxygen Transmission Rate (OTR)
 Customised measurements on how other gasses and vapours move across the
material

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 Accelerated Weathering Analysis
25  Necessary to ensure that materials and products meet their expected
functionality and lifetime.
 The materials are tested for their resistance to environmental impact,
weathering, temperature, humidity and repeated sterilization or UV/ Xenon
exposure. The polymer materials or products are exposed under defined
conditions to heat, UV, and other stress to determine their critical properties
before and after exposure.
 Materials typically tested include inks and dyes (for example in fascia boards),
pipelines destined for hot environments; medical devices, such as blood bags,
automotive materials weathering tests.

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 Friction, Wear and Abrasion
 Tribology: study of the frictional characteristics of materials
26
 Applications include roller bearing, bushings, bearing pads, cams, piston rings, and gears
 Coefficient of friction (μ): Primary tribological characteristic is the coefficient of friction
between two surfaces.
 Coefficient of friction is important for polymers and polymers with another material. It is
well defined for metallic materials.
 Coefficient of friction is defined as:
 The ratio of the sliding force to the normal force.
 The ratio of the shear stress to the normal pressure.
 Two types of coefficient of fraction are;
 Static (starting) coefficient
 Dynamic (sliding) coefficient
 Static coefficient is generally higher than dynamic coefficient.
 Explain wear and abrasion properties and give examples.

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 Fatigue tests

 Fatigue is failure under fluctuating / cyclic stresses. It is the progressive and localized
27
structural failure that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading. Under
fluctuating / cyclic stresses, failure can occur at loads considerably lower than tensile
or yield strengths of material under a static load. Estimated to causes 90% of all
failures of metallic structures (bridges, aircraft, machine components, etc.).
 Fatigue failure is brittle-like (relatively little plastic deformation) - even in normally
ductile materials. Thus sudden and catastrophic!
 Applied stresses causing fatigue may be axial (tension or compression), flexural
(bending) or torsional (twisting).
 Fatigue failure proceeds in three distinct stages;
 Nucleation of cracks at the surface of the material (crack initiation in the areas of
stress concentration {near stress raisers}).
 Growth of the crack inwards into the material (incremental crack propagation).
 Final catastrophic failure (Fracture of the material when the crack reaches a critical
size).
 Fatigue strength: Stress at which fracture occurs after a specified number of cycles
(e.g. 107).
 Fatigue life: Number of cycles to fail at a specified stress level.
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 Fatigue testing process
28  A specified mean load (which may be zero) and an alternating load are
applied to a specimen and the number of cycles required to produce
failure (fatigue life) is recorded.
 Generally, the test is repeated with identical specimens and various
fluctuating loads. Loads may be applied axially, in torsion, or in flexure.
 Depending on amplitude of the mean and cyclic load, net stress in the
specimen may be in one direction through the loading cycle, or may
reverse direction.
 Data from fatigue testing often are presented in an S-N diagram which is
a plot of the number of cycles required to cause failure in a specimen
against the amplitude of the cyclical stress developed.
 The cyclical stress represented may be stress amplitude, maximum
stress or minimum stress. Each curve in the diagram represents a
constant mean stress. Most fatigue tests are conducted in flexure,
rotating beam, or vibratory type machines.

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 Fatigue cont…
29
Factors that affect fatigue life Factors that affect fatigue life:
 Magnitude of stress (mean, environmental effects
amplitude...) i. Thermal Fatigue. Thermal cycling
 Quality of the surface (scratches, sharp causes expansion and contraction,
transitions). hence thermal stress, if component is
restrained.
Solutions Solutions:
 Polishing (removes machining flaws  Eliminate restraint by design.
etc.)  Use materials with low thermal
 Introducing compressive stresses expansion coefficients
(compensate for applied tensile
stresses) into thin surface layer by i. Corrosion fatigue. Chemical reactions
“Shot Peening”- firing small shot into induce pits which act as stress raisers.
surface to be treated. High-tech Corrosion also enhances crack
solution - ion implantation, laser propagation.
peening. Solutions:
 Case Hardening - create C- or N- rich  Decrease corrosiveness of medium, if
outer layer in steels by atomic diffusion possible
from the surface. Makes harder outer  Add protective surface coating 12/16/2024
 Creep tests
Creep is a time-dependent and permanent
deformation of materials when subjected to a
30 constant load at a high temperature. Materials
are often placed in service at elevated
temperatures and exposed to static mechanical
stresses (e.g., turbine rotors in jet engines and
steam generators that experience centrifugal
stresses; high-pressure steam lines).
Deformation under such circumstances is
termed creep. It is observed in all materials
types; for metals it becomes important only for
temperatures greater than 0.4 Tm (where Tm is
the absolute melting temperature).
A typical creep test consists of subjecting a
specimen to a constant load or stress while
maintaining the temperature constant;
deformation or strain is measured and plotted as
a function of elapsed time. Most tests are the
Typical creep curve
constant-load type, which yield information of an
engineering nature; constant-stress tests are As shown in the above figure, upon loading the
employed to provide a better understanding of specimen, there is an instantaneous deformation (ε0)
the mechanisms of creep. that is mostly elastic. Actual creep curve follows this
During the creep test, strain (change in length) elastic deformation. Based on the variation of creep
is measured as a function of elapsed time. Creep rate with time, creep curve is considered to consists
test data is presented as a plot between time of three portions, each of which has its own
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 
Creep cont…
After initial rapid elongation, ε0, the creep rate decreases continuously with time, and is
31 known as primary or transient creep. Primary creep is followed by secondary or
steady-state or viscous creep, which is characterized by constant creep rate. This
stage of creep is often the longest duration of the three modes. Finally, a third stage of
creep known as, tertiary creep occurs that is characterized by increase in creep rate.
It is suggested that during primary creep, For metallic materials most creep tests are conducted in
material strain hardens thus increases its uniaxial tensile mode. However, uniaxial compression
creep resistance. Constant creep rate tests are used for brittle materials to avoid stress
during secondary creep is believed to be amplification and corresponding crack propagation. For
due to balance between the competing most materials creep properties are independent of
processes of strain hardening and
loading direction.
recovery. The average value of creep
rate during the secondary creep is called The minimum creep rate is the most important design
the minimum creep rate. Third stage parameter derived from the creep curve. It is the
creep occurs in constant load tests at engineering design parameter that is considered for long-
high stresses at high temperatures. This life applications, e.g. nuclear power plant components. On
stage is greatly delayed in constant the other hand, for short-life components (e.g. turbine
stress tests. Tertiary creep is believed to blades, rocket motor nozzles), time to rupture or rupture
occur because of either reduction in lifetime is the dominant factor in design. It is found from
cross-sectional area due to necking or test conducted to the point of failure, and the test is
internal void formation. Third stage is known as stress-rupture test. This is basically similar to a
often associated with metallurgical creep test except that the test is always carried out at
changes such as coarsening of 12/16/2024
higher loads. In a creep test total strain is often less than